Nutrition Research 26 (2006) 524 – 530
www.elsevier.com/locate/nutres
Differences exist in the eating habits of university men
and women at fast-food restaurants
Judy A. Driskell4, Brian R. Meckna, Narissa E. Scales
Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0806, USA
Received 6 June 2006; revised 6 September 2006; accepted 11 September 2006
Abstract
Fast-food restaurant eating habits of a group of college students at a large Midwestern land-grant
university were determined and evaluated by sex. A 2-page questionnaire was developed, which
assessed the subjects’ frequency of eating meals and snacks at fast-food restaurants, the predominate
types of fast-food restaurants patronized, and the factors influencing food choices at fast-food
restaurants. Questionnaires were completed by 113 men and 113 women. A significantly higher
percentage of men (84%) than women (58%) reported typically eating fast foods for lunch at least
once weekly. A significantly higher percentage of men (70%) than women (63%) reported typically
eating at American burger/fries establishments at least once weekly. A significantly larger percentage
of men (41%) than women (21%) typically ordered carbonated soda, whereas the reverse was
reported for carbonated diet soda (14% vs 31%). A significantly larger percentage of women (34%)
than men (13%) gave eating with family/friends as 1 of 2 main reasons for eating at fast-food
restaurants. More men (44%) reported typically eating everything ordered at fast-food restaurants,
whereas more women (40%) typically ate until satisfied. Fifty percent of men reported not typically
considering portion sizes, and 53% of women reported typically considering small portion sizes
when ordering. Thirty-seven percent of men and 51% of women reported sometimes choosing menu
options they considered healthier at fast-food restaurants. Many differences were observed by sex in
the fast-food restaurant eating behaviors of this group of college students.
D 2006 Published by Elsevier Inc.
Keywords:
University students; Fast foods; Human eating habits; Human sex differences; Portion sizes eaten by humans;
College students
1. Introduction
The frequency of fast-food consumption has dramatically
increased since the early 1970s [1,2]. The number of fastfood outlets has increased from about 30 000 in 1970 to
more than 233 000 locations in the United States in 2004,
generating sales in excess of $242.5 billion annually [3].
Fast-food restaurants are those in which one can order,
purchase, and receive the food in about 10 minutes [4]; this
includes traditional fast-food restaurants where customers
order and receive food at counters and drive-in locations
4 Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 402 472 8975; fax +1 402 472 1587.
E-mail address: jdriskell@unl.edu (J.A. Driskell).
0271-5317/$ – see front matter D 2006 Published by Elsevier Inc.
doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2006.09.003
as well as fast/casual restaurants where customers order at
counters and their food is delivered to the table [5]. A 2001
survey of 4746 children and teenagers, 11 to 18 years old,
showed that fast-food consumption was associated with
higher intakes of cheeseburgers, French fries, pizzas, and
soft drinks, and lower intakes of fruits, vegetables, and milk
[6]. Foods frequently purchased by college students at fastfood restaurants were hamburgers, ham and cheese sandwiches, and pizza [7]. However, foods lower in calories and
fats are available for purchase in fast-food restaurants.
Healthy lifestyles can best be obtained via balance and
moderation in diet combined with physical activity. According to the National Restaurant Association, Washington,
DC, the restaurant industry is committed to promoting
J.A. Driskell et al. / Nutrition Research 26 (2006) 524–530
healthy lifestyles [8]. The average American eats out about
4 times weekly [9], frequently at fast-food restaurants.
College students have been reported to eat meals at fastfood restaurants 6 to 8 times weekly [10]. Hence, foods
eaten at fast-food restaurants do substantially contribute to
the nutrient intakes of individuals in the United States,
especially college students.
Most college students’ dietary intakes do not meet daily
recommendations for most of the food groups [11]. The
1995 National College Health Risk Behavior Survey found
that 74% of college students did not eat the recommended
amounts of fruits and vegetables per day and 22% had eaten
3 or more high-fat foods daily [12]. These behaviors are of
particular concern to nutrition professionals because dietary
knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors that are developed and
exhibited during college may carryover to adulthood and
strongly influence future health status [11]. One of the
Healthy People 2010 objectives is to increase the proportion
of college and university students who receive information
on dietary practices that cause disease [13].
A few studies have been done in the last couple of
decades on reasons why college students eat at fast-food
restaurants, though the reasons given may be different today
than 10 to 15 years ago. These reasons include menu
choices, cost, convenience [10,14], taste, cost [10], socializing with friends, and a chance to get out [15]. Information
is not available as to whether the reasons that men eat at
fast-food restaurants are different from those of women.
College men have been reported to consume more highenergy and high-fat foods than women [7]. The recommendations for food energy and for many of the essential
nutrients are different for men and women [16-21]. A better
understanding of the influence of sex on the eating habits of
college students is needed, and likely, differences do exist.
College students often frequent fast-food restaurants. The
purpose of this study was to determine the fast-food
restaurant eating habits of a group of college students at a
large Midwestern land-grant university and determine if
differences exist by sex. The frequency of eating meals and
snacks at fast-food restaurants, the predominate types of
fast-food restaurants patronized, and the factors influencing
food choices at fast-food restaurants were determined.
2. Methods and materials
2.1. Subjects
The institutional review board of the University of
Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Neb, approved the project.
Participants, 19 years and older, were recruited from an
introductory nutrition course at a large Midwestern landgrant university during the fifth week of the fall semester,
2004. Introductory nutrition is one of the choices of courses
that students can select to meet or partially meet the science
requirement in all colleges of this university except one.
This course has no prerequisites; 95% of enrolled students
525
took the course to meet or partially meet their science
requirement. Subjects were generally representative of
undergraduate students at our university.
Ninety-nine percent of eligible students participated; all
signed informed consent forms. More women than men
completed the questionnaire; hence, questionnaires from the
women were randomly selected (random numbers) for
inclusion in the study so that an equal number of men and
women served as subjects. Nine of the subjects completed
the questionnaire a second time after 4 weeks; their response
reliability was 77.2%.
2.2. Questionnaire development
A 2-page written questionnaire was developed using
previously published findings [7,14,15,22-24] as well as
questions about the influence of nutritional information on
food choices, portion sizes, and food choices students
considered as being healthier. A Likert-type scale with 2(yes, no), 3-, 4-, or 5-point responses [25] was used in
constructing responses for each question included in the
questionnaire. So that participants were aware of what was
meant by fast-food restaurant, the definition was placed on
the top of the questionnaire. The 10-item questionnaire
consisted of the following questions: age of 19 years or
older; sex; number of times a week (0, 1-2, 3-4, 5+) a
subject typically eat at fast-food restaurants (breakfast,
lunch, dinner, and snack); how many times (0, 1-2, 3-4,
5+) a subject typically patronized each of several types of
fast-food restaurants (American burger/fries, Asian, deli
sandwich, Italian, Mexican, ice cream, other); type of
beverage (no drink, water, carbonated soda, carbonated
diet soda, fruit juice, milk and shakes, lemonade, tea,
other) typically ordered; 2 primary reasons for choosing to
eat fast food (selection of 2 from the following: advertisements, enjoy the taste, lack of cooking skills, limited time,
location, cost, to eat with friends/family, variety of menu,
other); eating until satisfied, eating everything ordered, or
both; portion sizes typically ordered (small, large, or do
not consider portion sizes) and why (health/weight issues,
hunger, value for money, other); influence of nutritional
information on the choices made regarding fast food (not
at all, rarely, sometimes, most of the time, or always); and
how often options students considered healthier were
chosen at fast-food restaurants (not at all, rarely, sometimes, most of time, or always). Local examples of each of
the types of fast-food restaurants were also listed on the
questionnaire. The questionnaire was validated before the
start of the study by 10 faculty members in nutrition and
health sciences, some of whom had expertise in food
service. Ten students pilot tested the survey to clarify
language and response options.
2.3. Statistical analyses
The data were analyzed by sex using the v 2 test for
association in contingency tables [26] implemented in SAS
PROC FREQ [27] software (SAS Institute, version 8, 1999,
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J.A. Driskell et al. / Nutrition Research 26 (2006) 524–530
3.2. Times/week eating at various types of fast-food
restaurants
The types of fast-food restaurants that the subjects
typically patronized most prevalently, that is, at least once
weekly, were deli sandwich, 73%; American burger/fries,
62%; and Mexican, 53% (Table 1). A significant difference
( P b .05) by sex was observed in the frequency of weekly
visits to American burger/fries establishments, with 30% of
men and 47% of women reporting not typically eating at
American burger/fries establishments. No sex differences
were observed with regard to the other types of fast-food
restaurants.
Fig. 1. Percentages of male (M) and female (F) university students that
reported typically eating breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snack 0, 1 to 2, 3 to 4,
and 5+ times weekly at fast-food restaurants. v 2 analyses indicated that
significant differences ( P b .05) by sex were observed for breakfast
and lunch.
3.3. Beverage typically ordered with fast-food meal or snack
The subjects included 113 men and 113 women, 19 years
and older. Thirteen percent of the subjects were freshmen;
24%, sophomores; 44%, juniors; and 19%, seniors.
A significant difference ( P b .05) was observed in the
type of beverage that men and women typically ordered
with a fast-food meal or snack. The most frequently
ordered beverages were carbonated soda, carbonated diet
soda, and water. Forty-one percent of men ordered
carbonated soda compared with 21% of women; 31% of
women ordered carbonated diet soda compared with 14%
of men. Water was typically ordered by 32% of women
and 23% of men. Lemonade and tea were ordered 4% to
9% of the time; no beverage, 4% of the time; fruit juice,
1% to 3% of the time; and milk or shake as well as other
beverage, less than 1% of the time.
3.1. Frequency of eating at fast-food restaurants
3.4. Primary reasons for choosing to eat fast food
The frequencies at which the male and female subjects
reported typically consuming breakfast, lunch, dinner, and
snack at fast-food restaurants are given in Fig. 1. Significant
differences ( P b .05) were observed between the responses
of men and women with regard to typically eating breakfast
and lunch, but not dinner or snack, at fast-food restaurants.
Most of the subjects (89%) reported not typically eating
breakfast at fast-food restaurants, with 83% of men and 95%
of women reporting not typically eating breakfast at fastfood restaurants. Eighty-four percent of men and 58% of
women reported typically eating fast foods for lunch at least
once weekly. Eighty-two percent of subjects typically ate
dinner at fast-food restaurants at least once weekly. Twentynine percent of subjects typically ate a snack at fast-food
restaurants weekly.
The 2 primary reasons the subjects gave for choosing to
eat fast food (Fig. 2) were limited time (71% of subjects)
and enjoy the taste (41%). Other less frequently selected
reasons were to eat with friends or family, location, cost,
lack of cooking skills, variety of menu, advertisements, and
other reasons. Responses of the subjects by sex were similar
with the exception that a significantly larger ( P b .0005)
percentage of women (34%) than men (13%) indicated that
1 of the 2 primary reasons for choosing to eat at fast-food
restaurants was to eat with friends and family.
Cary, NC). The findings are presented as percentages of
subjects. Differences were considered significant at P b .05.
3. Results
3.5. Eating until satisfied, everything ordered, or both
A significant difference ( P b .01) was observed between
men and women as to whether they typically ate at a fastfood restaurant until they were satisfied, ate everything
Table 1
Percentages of university male and female students that reported typically eating at various types of fast-food restaurants 0, 1 to 2, 3 to 4, and 5+ times weekly
Type of fast-food restaurant
American burger/friesa
Asian
Deli sandwich
Italian
Mexican
Ice cream
Other
a
Male
0
30.1
69.0
24.8
59.3
44.3
77.9
96.4
1-2
58.4
30.1
65.5
38.1
54.9
21.2
3.6
Female
3-4
8.9
0.9
8.0
1.8
0.9
0.9
0.0
5+
2.7
0.0
1.8
0.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
46.9
81.4
29.2
64.0
49.6
69.0
98.2
v 2 analyses indicated that the responses of males were significantly different ( P b .05) than those of females.
1-2
48.7
18.6
66.4
35.1
47.8
29.2
0.9
3-4
1.8
0.0
3.5
0.9
2.7
1.8
0.9
5+
2.7
0.0
0.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
J.A. Driskell et al. / Nutrition Research 26 (2006) 524–530
527
of the subjects, with an equal percentage of the sex groups
(40%), was that they sometimes made choices regarding
fast-food choices based on nutrition information.
3.8. Selection of healthier options
A significant difference ( P b .01) was observed by sex
as to how often subjects reported choosing options they
considered healthier at fast-food restaurants. The responses
by sex were (male vs female) not at all, 14% vs 2%; rarely,
23% vs 18%; sometimes, 37% vs 51%; most of the time,
21% vs 24%; and always, 5% vs 5%.
4. Discussion
Fig. 2. Responses given by male and female university students as 1 of their
2 primary reasons for choosing to eat fast food. Subjects selected 2 reasons
(advertisement, enjoy the taste, lack of cooking skills, limited time,
location, cost, eat with friends/family, variety of menu, and other). v 2
analysis indicated that a significantly larger ( P b .05) percentage of
females gave to eat with friends/family than males as 1 of their 2 reasons.
ordered, or both. Twenty-one percent of men indicated that
they typically ate until they were satisfied, 44% ate
everything ordered, and 35% selected both; 40% of women
indicated that they typically ate until they were satisfied,
39% ate everything ordered, and 21% selected both.
3.6. Portion sizes considered and reasons given
A significant difference ( P b .0001) was observed
between men and women as to whether they typically
considered smaller portion sizes, larger portion sizes, or did
not consider portion sizes when ordering a meal at fast-food
restaurants. Fifty percent of the men reported not typically
considering portion sizes, whereas 53% of the women
reported considering smaller portion sizes. There were no
differences by sex as to the reasons (health/weight issues,
hunger, value for money, and other) selected by subjects for
considering portion sizes (Fig. 3); students could select only
one of the listed reasons. Of the 78 subjects that indicated
considering smaller portion sizes, more than half gave
health/weight issues as the reason for considering smaller
portion sizes. More than half of the 50 subjects that indicated
considering larger portion sizes gave hunger as the reason for
considering larger portion sizes. The predominant responses
that the 98 subjects selected for not considering portion sizes
were hunger and value for money, both of which received
more than one third of responses.
College students reportedly skip meals, especially
breakfast [10,22]. Few students in the current study
(11%) reported typically eating breakfast at a fast-food
restaurant, though they may have eaten breakfast elsewhere. According to a 2003 survey of a group of
undergraduate students at our university, 57% reported
typically eating breakfast, and more than 90% reported
typically eating meals at fast-food restaurants 6 to 8 times
weekly [10]. The meals of choice of the subjects in the
current study eaten at fast-food restaurants were lunch and
dinner, mostly 1 to 2 times weekly. More than 29% of
these subjects reported eating snacks at fast-food restaurants. Significantly larger percentages of women than men
reported not eating breakfast and lunch at fast-food
restaurants in the current study. College men have been
reported to eat more fast foods than women [7]. College
men have been reported as being more likely than college
women to eat breakfast and less likely to skip meals as a
means of weight control [23].
3.7. Influence of nutrition information on choices made
regarding fast-food choices
A significant difference ( P b .01) was observed between
men and women as to how much (not at all, rarely,
sometimes, most of the time, and always) nutrition
information influenced the choices they made regarding
fast food. Females more often selected most of the time
(35%) than males (23%), and males more often selected not
at all (16%) than females (3%). The predominant response
Fig. 3. Percentages of male (M) and female (F) university students giving
health/weight issues, hunger, value for money, and other as reasons for
typically considering ordering smaller portion sizes, larger portion sizes, or
not considering portion sizes when ordering a meal at fast-food restaurants.
Students could select only one of the above reasons. v 2 analysis indicated
that a significant difference ( P b .01) was observed by sex as to whether
students typically considered ordering smaller portion sizes, larger portion
sizes, or not considering portion sizes when ordering a meal at fast-food
restaurants.
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J.A. Driskell et al. / Nutrition Research 26 (2006) 524–530
College students in the present study patronized a variety
of types of fast-food restaurants at least 1 to 2 times weekly.
The most popular choices were the fast-food restaurants
classified as deli sandwich, American burger/fries, and
Mexican. Huang et al [7] reported that hamburgers, ham and
cheese sandwiches, and pizzas were popular selections of
college students.
The 2 beverages most typically ordered by subjects in the
current study were carbonated soda and carbonated diet
soda. As expected, a larger percentage of women consumed
carbonated diet soda than men, whereas the reverse was true
for carbonated soda. Fast food, pizza, and other types of
restaurants provided 25% of the soda consumed by teenaged
girls, 12 to 19 years old [24].
Menu choices, cost, and convenience have been reported
as being related to the number of meals college students ate
in fast-food restaurants [10,14]. College students included
in a 2003 survey at our university indicated that their food
choices, not just at fast-food restaurants, were most
influenced by convenience, taste, and cost [10]. One third
of the women in the current study indicated that 1 of the 2
primary reasons for choosing to eat fast foods was to eat
with friends and family. Hertzler and Frary [15] reported
that socializing with friends and a chance to get out were
the top 2 choices of college students for eating fast foods.
The predominate 2 reasons given by subjects in the current
study for eating at fast-food restaurants were limited time
and taste. Seemingly, college students today want to spend
little time eating at least some meals, and they tend to like
the taste of fast foods, perhaps because they have become
accustomed to eating fast foods.
More than half of American adults polled in 2006
indicated that they decided how much food to eat at a
single sitting based on the amount they were served [28].
In a subsequent survey, 70% of American adults polled
indicated that when dining out, they finished their entrées
all or most of the time [29]. The amount of food that is
presented during a single meal directly influences energy
intake [30]. Half of the men included in the current study
reported not typically considering portion sizes when
ordering at fast-food restaurants, whereas more than half
of the women reported considering smaller portion sizes.
Sex-specific brain responses to a meal indicate possible
differences by sex in the cognitive and emotional
processes of hunger and satiety [31]. Such brain responses
may relate to differences by sex relating to the selection
of portion sizes and eating until satisfied or eating
everything ordered. Women have been reported as more
likely to be trying to lose weight than men [32]; this may
help explain this disparity between men and women. A
study involving 131 female college students indicated that
more than 54% were not satisfied with their body weight;
both women and men used less consumption of high fat
foods as a way to lose weight [33]. Female college
students have been reported to be less accurate in their
perceptions of their body weights than males [34]. This
may explain why a larger percentage of the college
women than men in the current study considered ordering
smaller portion sizes when eating at fast-food restaurants.
Most men and women included in the current study gave
health/weight issues as the reason for considering ordering
smaller portion sizes. Hunger and value for money were
reasons given by those subjects for not considering
portion sizes when ordering at fast-food restaurants.
Female college students in the current study more often
indicated that nutritional information influenced their food
choices at fast-food restaurants than men. Food labeling has
been reported to influence the food choices made by college
students [35]. The types of nutrition information a group of
college students indicated that they wanted on the internet
were body image and weight concerns, student personalization features, healthy eating on a budget, healthy meal
planning, basic nutrition facts, and expert nutrition information [36]. Hence, perhaps the easy availability of
reputable nutritional information may influence the food
choices made by college students.
Most of the college students in the present study
indicated at least sometimes choosing options they considered healthier at fast-food restaurants, with a larger
percentage of women than men selecting sometimes or
most of the time. Today, most, if not all, fast-food
restaurants have responded to consumer concerns and offer
some healthier food choices.
Significant differences were observed by sex with
regard to many of the fast-food eating behaviors of college
students included in the present study. Most of the college
students in the current study typically ate lunch and dinner
at fast-food restaurants at least once weekly, with a larger
percentage of men than women typically eating lunch at
fast-food restaurants. More than half of the students
reported typically eating at deli sandwich, American
burger/fries, and Mexican fast-food restaurants at least
once weekly, with a larger percentage of men than women
eating more frequently at the American burger/fries
restaurants. A larger percentage of men ordered carbonated
soda, and women, diet carbonated soda. Limited time and
enjoy the taste were the 2 main reasons subjects gave for
choosing to eat fast food. Women more often than men
gave the reason of eating with friends/family. A larger
percentage of men than women indicated that they
typically ate everything ordered, whereas a larger percentage of women than men reported typically eating until they
were satisfied. A larger percentage of men reported not
considering portion sizes when ordering at fast-food
restaurants, whereas a larger percentage of women reported
considering ordering smaller portion sizes. The reason
most subjects gave for considering ordering various
portion sizes were, for smaller portion sizes, health/weight
issues; for larger portion sizes, hunger; and for not
considering portion sizes, hunger and value for money.
Thirty-five percent of women and 23% of men indicated
that nutrition information influenced the choices they made
J.A. Driskell et al. / Nutrition Research 26 (2006) 524–530
regarding fast food most of the time. A larger percentage
of women than men reported sometimes choosing options
they considered healthier at fast-food restaurants.
The findings of the current study cannot be generalized
for all college students’ fast-food eating behaviors
throughout the United States; however, these findings
are in agreement with the limited number of studies
published on the topic, though most of these were
published over a decade ago and food habits often change
over time. The consumption of foods at fast-food
restaurants appears to be common among college students,
and most likely, is part of their lifestyle. Individuals can
consume food items that are lower in calories and fats
when dining at fast-food restaurants because these types
of items are available. The findings of the present study
indicate that nutritional consultation and educational
materials designed to help college students make good
food choices when dining at fast-food restaurants need to
be somewhat different for college men than women
because several differences in eating habits at fast-food
restaurants were observed by sex.
Acknowledgment
Funding for this research was provided by the Nebraska
Agricultural Research Division; this article is their Journal
Series 15180. We thank the subjects for their participation in
the study. The statistical consultation provided by Erin E.
Blankenship, Department of Statistics at the University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb, is appreciated.
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