Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
Chapter 1: Essential Concepts
Learning a language is not the same as learning about a language. Learning a language means
becoming able to use it to comprehend, communicate, and think, as we do in our first language.
Teaching a language means being able to guide students in their journey to comprehend,
communicate, and think in another language. This section aims to introduce you to the
philosophy that underlies language-teaching practice in the United States today.
Communicative
Competence
LearnerCentered
Instruction
Performance
Assessment
Cultural
Competence
Standards
for Foreign
Language
Learning
Transfer
in Language
Learning
Understanding
by Design
Language and
Culture Are
Inseparable
Authentic
Materials
Fig. 1-1-1 ©Lillihoj
From Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
A project of the National Capital Language Resource Center,
The George Washington University, Center for Applied Linguistics, and
Georgetown University
© 2014
www.nclrc.org
1: Essential Concepts
Chapter Contents
Nine Essential Concepts ………………..………………………………………….…...…
Communicative Competence ………………………………………………..…...
Cultural Competence ………………………………………………………..…...
Learner-Centered Instruction …………………………………………………….
Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century …………………..
Understanding by Design ………………………………………………………...
Performance Assessment ………………………………………………………...
Transfer in Language Learning …………………………………………………..
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
5
…………………………………………..
5
Authentic Materials ………………………………………………………………
5
Language and Culture are Inseparable
Communicative Competence ………………………………………………………….….
The Learner-Centered Model and the Teacher-Centered Model …………………
Stages of Language Acquisition ………………………………………………….
6
6
6
Learner-Centered Instruction ……………………………………………………………
The Learner-Centered Model and the Teacher-Centered Model …………………
7
7
Language Learning Strategies ……………………………………………………………
Stages of Language Acquisition ………………………………………………….
9
10
References, Resources, Images, and Credits ……..……………………………………… 12
Appendices
………………………………………………………………………………… 16
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Nine Essential Concepts
This section is an overview of the concepts that are central to the language-teaching practices that
are described in this guide. Each concept is developed more fully in later chapters. Examples and
illustrations in various languages will help you apply these concepts in your classroom.
1. Communicative Competence
Communicative competence is the goal of world/foreign language
instruction and learning. It is the ability to understand the target
language and to produce meaningful messages through it. A
meaningful message applies knowledge and appropriate use of
grammar and vocabulary in combination with culture, social norms
or behavior, as well as culturally appropriate communication
strategies. Learning a new language means becoming able to use it
Fig. 1-3-1 ©SWCockey
to comprehend, communicate, and think— as we do in our first
language. Teaching a language means guiding learners to develop their communicative
competence in a new language.
2. Cultural Competence
Cultural competence is a subset of the knowledge and skills needed
for communicative competence. It includes awareness of cultural
differences between one’s own culture and others; familiarity with
the perspectives, practices and products of other cultures; and the
knowledge and skill necessary to interact with people from other
cultures. Cultural competence increases learners’ confidence in
communicating with members of other cultures.
Fig. 1-3-2 Wikipedia
3. Learner-Centered Instruction
The learner-centered model of instruction is a successful model
for teaching language for communicative and cultural
competence. The focus in a learner- centered classroom is on
both the context of learning and how students learn. The
teacher provides models of language use that draw on
materials that reflect language use in real life situations.
Students then build on those models as they use the language
themselves with the teacher, with each other, and with others
outside the classroom.
Fig. 1-3-3 ©SWCockey
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1: Essential Concepts
4. Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21 st Century
The Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21 st Century are
widely used; they are specific learning objectives for communicative and
cultural competence developed by the National Standards in Foreign
Language Education Project (1996, 1999, 2006). These learning
objectives are the backbone of curricular and lesson planning. They
describe what teachers want students to know and be able to do with the
target language. The Standards are developed within five goal areas:
Communication (understanding and producing language), Cultures
(understanding the products, practices and perspectives of the people),
Fig. 1-4-1 ©ACTFL
Connections (making connections with other disciplines), Comparisons
(comparing the target language and culture with other languages and cultures), and
Communities (participating in communities of the target language and culture).
The Communication standards differentiate three communication modes— interpersonal (oral
or written exchanges), interpretive (reading, listening, viewing), and presentational (oral
presentation or written text). Although the Standards were written for teachers in the United
States teaching languages other than English, the basic ideas have been of use to teachers
around the world teaching many different languages, including English as a foreign language.
5. Understanding by Design
Know where you are GOING
The increased focus on developing communicative and
Know how you will GET THERE
cultural competence in the world language classroom has
Know what you will DO
coincided with another trend in the general field of
Know how you will KNOW
education, the use of purposeful design as a curriculum
Fig. 1-4-2 ©SWCockey
framework. Originally called “backward design,” this
approach provides a pattern for curricular design that focuses on the end goal. That is, the
teacher first determines the objectives, then the assessment of progress towards the
objectives, and lastly the instructional sequence and activities that are designed to allow the
students to successfully complete the assessment. In this approach, assessment drives the
curriculum. Understanding by Design focuses instruction on teaching for understanding by
exploring “big ideas” or concepts through critical thinking. (Wiggins & McTighe 2005, 2011,
2012. McTighe & Wiggins 2004, 2013). These concepts incorporate the goal areas of
culture, comparisons, connections, and communities described in the Standards.
6. Performance Assessment
Performance Assessment refers to assessments in which students
demonstrate their ability or knowledge through tasks that are often
direct and active. Since the goals of language learning are
communicative and cultural competence, then the assessment must
reflect the students’ ability to communicate appropriately,
demonstrating their understanding of the target culture. A chief
Fig. 1-4-3 ©Stephanieberg88
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
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1: Essential Concepts
component of Understanding by Design is the importance of the assessment matching the
objectives.
7. Transfer in Language Learning
“Transfer” in learning means being able to take knowledge,
understanding and/or skill from one situation and apply it to a new
situation. The new situation may be a different language, context, or
setting from how it was originally learned, offering the learner few
to no cues or supports. Transfer requires the learner to make
Fig. 1-5-1 ©SWCockey
inferences and negotiate meaning. It allows the learner to move
from using language in predictable contexts to using the language in less predictable
situations. Using a language appropriately in a given culture requires high adaptability,
tolerance of new situations, dealing with incomplete information, and problem-solving with
minimal or no cues, echoing the challenges people face using language outside the classroom.
Communicative competence requires the ability to transfer knowledge from the classroom to
real-life contexts. (Eddy, 2006)
8. Language and Culture Are Inseparable
The objectives of the Standards are interwoven; instruction
frequently addresses more than one standard at a given time.
Particularly important for planning instruction and assessment is the
understanding that language and culture are inseparable. As
students develop an understanding of the perspectives, practices,
and products of a region through use of the target language, this
Fig. 1-5-2 ©lifede
cultural knowledge in turn begins to influence how they use the
language. Communicative competence results from the ability to communicate in the target
language using knowledge of both language and culture.
9. Authentic Materials
Authentic materials are materials produced by and intended
for native speakers of the target language. They incorporate
the perspectives and assumptions inherent in the language.
When learning a language, students need as much as possible
to hear and see the language as native speakers use it.
Incorporating authentic materials and language in instruction,
supports the goal of helping students to reach communicative
and cultural competence in real language situations.
Fig. 1-5-3 ©SWCockey
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1: Essential Concepts
Communicative Competence
Communicative competence is the ability to convey and receive messages
of many different types successfully (Standards for Foreign Language
Learning in the 21st Century, 2006). Students learn languages for a wide
variety of purposes and uses. As a result, the desired outcome of language
learning is the ability to communicate competently for a variety of
purposes, in a variety of circumstances, and in a variety of ways.
Fig. 1-6-1 ©Sjenner13
Communicative Efficiency
At all stages of language learning, instructors and students may want to keep in mind the goal of
communicative efficiency. Communicative efficiency is when learners try to make themselves
understood, and to understand others, using their current proficiency to the fullest. To
accomplish this goal, learners can:
 Be as clear as possible using correct pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
 Use and be sensitive to socially and culturally appropriate language and behaviors by
paying attention to what they have learned and observed so far about the society and
culture.
 Use strategies for recognizing and managing communication breakdowns such as
asking for repetition or clarification, using appropriate gestures to help communication,
and using alternative words in vocabulary breakdowns.
Communicative Competence
Communicative competence depends on the learner’s ability in three main skill areas: linguistic,
sociolinguistic, and strategic.
 Linguistic skills are knowing how to use the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of a
language.
 Sociolinguistic skills are knowing how to use and respond to
language appropriately, given the setting, the topic, and the
structure of social relationships. It is understanding the context of
the message and knowing the proper discourse style, the
appropriate way to use language, for successful communication.
For example, in many languages, the discourse style used in a
formal speech is different from that of a personal conversation.
Language learners need to be aware of and begin to use both the
informal and formal aspects of the target language as necessary.

Fig. 1-6-2 ©Iona Grecu
Strategic skills are knowing how to maintain communication by
recognizing and managing communication breakdowns, how to work around gaps in
one’s knowledge of the language, and how to learn more about the language and the
context. For example, How do I know when I’ve misunderstood a message or when
someone has misunderstood my message? What do I say then? How can I express my
ideas if I don’t know the correct vocabulary word or the correct verb form to use?
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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Learner-centered Instruction
Learner-centered instruction in language learning is based on the premise that language
learning is a process of discovery that leads to communicative competence. The teacher
models language use and facilitates the learner’s development of language skills that can be
applied in real-life situations.
Fig. 1-7-1 ©Dmitry Rukhlenko
In this model, both student and teacher are active participants who
share responsibility for the student’s learning. Teacher and students
work together to identify how students expect to use the language. The
teacher models language use and students then use the language
themselves in activities that either simulate—or are—real
communication situations.
Because the focus is on how language is used in real communication, this model teaches
students how to use and respond to language appropriately as well as learning the forms and
structures of the target language. A learner-centered classroom will give students the ability to
use the language to acquire information and participate in the communities where it is spoken.
The Learner-Centered Model and the Teacher-Centered Model
The learner-centered model represents a change from the teacher-centered model
of instruction. The teacher-centered model is the model that many teachers have
used and been educated in until recently. In this model, learners benefited from
teachers’ knowledge and guidance. The communication skills that underlie
communicative and cultural competence developed later.
Fig. 1-7-2 ©Pixattitude
Some teachers use one or the other model exclusively, while some move back and forth
between the two. Whatever model a teacher decides to use, it is important that she be aware of
what his/her basic teaching model is and what that means for his/her instruction and students.
The differences between the teacher-centered instruction model and the learner-centered
instruction model are summarized in Appendix A: Differences between Two Models of Language
Teacher.
The language teaching profession in the United States has come to recognize that the teachercentered instruction model has two serious drawbacks:


It views the teacher as active and the student as fundamentally passive. The teacher is
responsible for transmitting all of the information to the students. The teacher talks; the
students listen and may absorb all, some, or none of the information. By not seeking to
engage all students actively, it involves only a minority of students in actual language
learning. It lays the entire burden of learning on the teacher.
It views language as a subject to be studied and language learning as the gradual mastery
of the target language’s grammar, syntax, and vocabulary. It gives students knowledge
about the language, but does not necessarily enable them to use it in real-life situations for
1: Essential Concepts
purposes that interest them.
The language teaching profession has come to believe that the learnercentered model is more effective in leading students to gain communicative
and cultural competence in world languages (Jensen & Sandrock, 2007).
The learner-centered model enables learners and teachers to work together
to build communicative and cultural competence from the earliest stages of
instruction.
For language teachers who are new to the learner-centered model, using this
model may seem daunting in several ways.





Fig. 1-8-1 ©Ankevanwyk
It conflicts with tradition: Many cultures have longstanding traditions about how
language should be taught, especially to schoolchildren. These approaches are often
teacher-centered, and they often focus on developing literacy skills.
It is mysterious: It is not clear what, exactly, a teacher does to make a classroom
learner-centered.
It sounds like a bad idea: The phrase “learner-centered” makes it sound as though the
teacher is not in control of the classroom.
It feels like it is not going to work: When students first move into small groups, they
may be slow to get started as they assess the assigned task and figure out group
dynamics.
It feels chaotic: Once students start working in their groups, the classroom becomes
noisy and the teacher must be comfortable with the idea that students may make
mistakes that are not heard and corrected.
In fact, in an effective learner-centered classroom, the teacher has planned the content of all
activities and has set time limits on them. The teacher is not always the center of attention, but
is still in control of students’ learning activities. In the chapter on Methods and Motivation and
in the Practices sections of this guide you will find many specific suggestions on how to design
and carry out learner-centered instruction.
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
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1: Essential Concepts
Language Learning Strategies
Learner-centered instruction places responsibility on the teacher for guiding students through an
effective learning process. For teachers, one part of guiding students through the learning
process involves teaching students learning strategies including how and when to use them.
Learning strategies are the thoughts and actions that learners
employ to help them learn. They include thoughts such as
planning and monitoring their own learning and actions such
as taking notes and making diagrams. They also include social
Fig. 1-9-1 ©SWCockey
behavior such as cooperating with others to learn. More effective
language learners use a wider range of strategies more efficiently
than less effective language learners (Chamot, 2009). For a list and description of twenty
important learning strategies in English and ten other languages, go to Sailing the 5 C’s with
Learning Strategies” at http://www.nclrc.org/sailing/index.html. The chart is listed under
Appendices as Appendix C: Learning Strategies List in English.
Learning strategies instruction shows students that their success or lack of it may be influenced
by how they go about learning rather than to forces beyond their control. Most students can
learn how to use strategies more effectively; when they do so, they may become more selfreliant and better able to learn independently. They often begin to take more responsibility for
their own learning, and their motivation increases because they have increased confidence in
their learning ability and can apply specific techniques for successful language learning.
Teachers can tap into students' knowledge about how languages work and
how learning happens—their metacognition—to help them direct and
monitor their own language learning process in two ways:


By encouraging students to recognize their own thinking processes.
Developing self-knowledge that leads to self-regulation gives
learners control of their learning, such as, planning how to proceed
with a learning task, monitoring one's own performance on an
ongoing basis, and evaluating learning and oneself as learner
Fig. 1-9-2 ©John Takai
upon task completion.
By describing specific learning strategies, demonstrating their application to designated
learning tasks, and having students practice using them. In order to continue to be
successful with learning tasks, students need to be aware of the strategies that led to
their success and recognize the value of using them again. By devoting class time to
learning strategies, teachers reiterate their importance and value.
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The following guidelines demonstrate how to incorporate direct instruction in language learning
strategies into your teaching.
 Build on learning strategies students already in use by finding out their
current strategies and making students aware of the range of
strategies used by their classmates.
 Integrate strategy instruction with regular lessons, rather
than teaching the strategies separately from language
learning activities.
 Be explicit: name the strategy, tell students why and how it will
help them, and demonstrate its use.
Fig. 1-10-1
 Provide choice by letting students decide which strategies work best for
©SWCockey
them.
 Guide students in transferring a familiar strategy to new problems.
 Plan continuous instruction in language learning strategies throughout the course.
 Use the target language as much as possible for strategies instruction.
Teachers can begin a conversation about learning strategies and learn about what strategies
their students are already using by administering a learning strategies questionnaire for students
to fill out and then discuss. For an existing questionnaire asking about student language
learning strategies, go to Appendix B: Language Learning Strategies Questionnaire.
Stages of Language Acquisition
As a language teacher you need to be aware that language learning takes
place in stages. Language learners have to work through a sequence of
"approximate" versions called interlanguages. Each stage in the sequence
of interlanguage development represents a level of understanding of the
target language. Understanding the features of interlanguages can help
teachers understand and monitor the language learning process. Scholars
describe the major stages in the sequence of learning the structure of a
second language differently, but, in general, they are uniqueness,
systematicity, fossilization, and convergence.
Fig. 1-10-2 ©JHCockeyJr
Uniqueness. Interlanguages vary significantly from learner to learner in the early stages
of language learning. Learners impose rules of their own on what they hear and read.
Each learner does this differently, combining emerging understandings of how the new
language works with ideas based on their first language and other information that
comes from their individual situations and backgrounds. For example, English language
speakers of Spanish may have difficulty understanding that words that look alike in
Spanish and English can have different meanings, such as “afección” (disease) and
“carpeta” (folder).
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
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Systematicity. As learners begin to develop proficiency in a language, they make errors
in systematic ways. These errors are based on systematic assumptions, or false rules,
about the language. For example, students of Arabic may say "*sa-`indi 15 sana" to
mean 'I will be 15 years old.' They understand the Arabic construction "`indi" 'I have' as
a verb and, thus, attempt to put it into the future using the Arabic particle "sa-", as they
would with any verb. Once they are told that "`indi" is not a morphological verb, they
can use it correctly to say "sa-yakuun`indi 15 sana.' When students become aware of this
aspect of their language skill development, they often appreciate and even ask for overt
error correction from the instructor. Other examples come from French and Spanish,
which both use have in expressions that in English are rendered with be: j’ai froid, j’ai
quinze ans; tengo frío, tengo quince años for I am cold; I am fifteen years old.
Fossilization: Some false rules may become more firmly imprinted than others and are
harder for learners to overcome. Fossilization results when these false rules become
permanent features of a learner's use of the language.
Convergence: As learners' rules come to approximate more closely those of the
language they are learning, convergence sets in. This means that learners who come
from different native language backgrounds make similar assumptions and formulate
similar hypotheses about the rules of the new language.
Fig. 1-11-1 ©SWCockey
In the language classroom, you will experience a variety of student communications at different
points of interlanguage development that may not fit with your notion of the development
process. Every student experiences interlanguage development differently. These stages in
developing communicative competence in a new language can be seen in all aspects of language
acquisition including vocabulary, pronunciation, sociological/cultural knowledge and behavior,
and appreciation and understanding of different cultural perspectives. Interpretive skills
(listening and reading) develop more quickly than expressive skills (speaking and writing). The
ability that students covet most—the ability to speak the target language fluently—requires a
long period of growth.
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References, Resources, Images, and Credits
References:
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (2014). World-readiness standards for
learning languages newly refreshed. The Language Educator, January 2014, 9/1, p.6.
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (2013). Standards for Foreign
Language Learning: Preparing for the 21st century.
www.actfl.org/publications/all/national-standards-foreign-language-education.
Chamot, A. (2009). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the Cognitive Academic
Language Learning Approach, 2nd Ed. White Plains, NY: Pearson.
Eddy, J. (Writer) & Couet, R. (Director). What is performance assessment? (Television
series episode of the Teachand and Language Learning Collaborative). Columbia,
SC: South Carolina Department of Education.
Jensen, J. & Sandrock, P. (2007). The Essentials of World Languages, Grades K-12.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
McTighe, J. & Wiggins, G. (2004). The Understanding by Design Professional Development
Workbook. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
McTighe, J. & Wiggins, G (2013). Essential questions: Opening doors to student understanding.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. (2006). Standards for Foreign
Language Learning in the 21st Century. Lawrence, KS: Allen Press.
National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project (NSFLEP). (201w). Worldreadiness standards for foreign language learning. Alexandria, VA: Author. Retreived
from the ACTFL website: http://www.actfl.org/publications/all/world-readinessstandards-learning-languages
Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design (Expanded 2nd ed.). Alexandria,
VA: ASCD.
Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2011). The Understanding by Design Guide to Creating HighQuality Units. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2012). The Understanding by Design Guide to Advanced Concepts
in Creating and Reviewing Units. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
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Resources:
Adair-Hauck, B. Glissan, E.W., and Troyan, F. Implementing Integrated Performance
Assessment. Alexandria VA: ACTFL. Available at:
http://www.actfl.org/publications/guidelines-and-manuals/implementing-integratedperformance-assessment
This manual explains how to carefully create summative performance assessments that
connect each of the three modes. The publication includes examples from Novice
through Advanced levels.
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Executive Summary of the
Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century (2006). Alexandria VA:
ACTFL.
The Executive Summary is available for downloading from the ACTFL website:
http://www.actfl.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3324. Information on how to order
the Standards can also be found on the ACTFL website:
http://www.actfl.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=4283.
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (2013). NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do
Statements Progress Indicators for Language Learners.
http://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/Can-Do_Statements.pdf
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (2013). NCSSFL-ACTFL Global Can-Do
Benchmarks. http://www.actfl.org/global_statements
Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA). Culture and Language
Learning. Available at: http://www.carla.umn.edu/culture/index.html
These pages explore the connection between language and culture learning in an
interdisciplinary manner. They contain a wealth of information on basic concepts in
education.
The pages on Content-based Instruction are particularly useful for understanding
language teaching practices with a focus on content-based methodology. Available at:
http://www.carla.umn/ecu/cobaltt/index/html
Center for Open Educational Resources and Language Learning (COERLL). Foreign Language
Teaching Methods. Available at: http://coerll.utexas.edu/methods/
This site provides 14 modules on teaching foreign language. Each module includes
video examples, opportunities for reflection, and quizzes to check comprehension. The
entire website is a very good introduction to teaching foreign language for teachers of
any language.
Clementi, Donna and Terrill, L. (2013). The Keys to Planning for Learning: Effective
Curriculum, Unit, and Lesson Design. Alexandria VA: ACTFL.
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The publication provides a template and several examples of units built around
summative performance assessments in each of the three modes of communication
(Interpretive, Interpersonal, and Presentational). At the ACTFL publication website,
several unit samples and the blank template may be downloaded:
http://www.actfl.org/publications/books-and-brochures/the-keys-planning-learning
National Capital Language Resource Center (NCLRC). Developing Autonomy in Language
Learners. Available at: http://nclrc.org/guides/HED/index.html
This is a learning strategies guide for the higher education level.
National Capital Language Resource Center (NCLRC). Elementary Immersion Learning
Strategies Guide. Available at: http://nclrc.org/eils/index.html.
National Capital Language Resource Center (NCLRC). (2007). The Essentials of Language
Teaching. Available at: http://nclrc.org/essentials/index.htm
This site gives an introduction to the language teaching methods in use. Contains
sections on the principles, practice, and examples of language teaching.
National Capital Language Resource Center (NCLRC). Sailing the 5 Cs with Learning
Strategies. Available at : http://www.nclrc.org/sailing/index.html
This is a learning strategies guide for the secondary level.
Wisconsin Association for Language Teachers. Language Educator Development E-Learning
Modules (LEDE). Available at http://www.waflt.org/asp/modules/about.htm
The first module on Standards is free. Access beyond this free area costs $35.00 for an
individual user. The modules are well written, comprehensive, and interactive.
Images:
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Brazil
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Credits:
Funding for this project was provided by grants from the United States Department of Education
 Title VI International Research and Studies: #P017A060073
 Title VI Language Resource Center: CFDA #84.229A
 Title VI International Research and Studies: CFDA #84.015A
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
Appendices
Appendix A: Differences between Two Models of Language Teaching
TEACHER-CENTERED MODEL
LEARNER-CENTERED MODEL
Fig. 1-15-1 ©Pixattitude
Focus is on the teacher
Fig. 1-15-2 ©Dmitry Tukhlenko
Focus is on both students and teacher
Focus is on language forms and structures Focus is on language use in typical situations
(what the teacher knows about the language) (how students will use the language)
Learning materials are made for the
classroom
Teacher talks; students listen
Students work alone
Learning materials are a combination of
authentic materials, drawn from real life, and
modified authentic materials, adapted for the
classroom
Teacher models; students interact with
teacher and one another
Students work in pairs, in groups, or alone
depending on the purpose of the activity
Students talk without constant teacher
Teacher monitors and corrects every student
monitoring; teacher provides
utterance
feedback/correction when questions arise
Teacher answers students’ questions about Students answer each other’s questions,
language
using the teacher as an information resource
Teacher chooses topics
Students have some choice of topics
Teacher evaluates student learning
Students evaluate their own learning; teacher
also evaluates
Classroom is quiet
Classroom is often noisy and busy
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© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
Appendix B: Language Learning Strategies Questionnaire
PERSONAL INFORMATION
Student’s Name:
Date:
Teacher's name:
Level of study in the target language from 1 (beginner) to 5 (advanced) (Circle one): 1 2 3 4 5
DIRECTIONS
The questionnaire describes different kinds of tasks you might encounter in your world language
class. Below each task are statements describing learning techniques, practices, tools, or
strategies you might use to help you perform the task.
For each kind of task, read the description. Then read each statement describing possible
approaches. Indicate your response by placing a check mark in the appropriate column (Never,
Rarely, Occasionally, or Often) to show how often you use the approach described. There are
no right or wrong answers. There are only answers that tell what you actually do.
The list is not complete, so if you do anything else, please jot it down on the lines
provided at the end of each section.
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
READING IN THE TARGET LANGUAGE
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Reading is a frequent activity you use for learning and using a language. You may often read
texts such as dialogues, stories, advertisements, and articles in the target language as classwork
or on your own. How often do you do each of the following to help you understand reading
material in the target language that is challenging?
R1. I decide in advance what my reading purpose is, and then I read
with that goal in mind.
R2. I decide in advance specific aspects of information to look for,
and I focus on that information when I read.
R3. Before I read, I think of what I already know about the topic.
R4. Before reading, I try to predict what the text will be about.
R5. While I read, I periodically check whether the material is making
sense to me.
R6. While reading, I decide whether the information makes sense
based on what I already know about the topic.
R7. I imagine scenes or draw pictures of what I am reading.
R8. I act out the situation described in the reading (for example, using
real objects to illustrate and put into context what I am reading).
R9. I encourage myself as I read by saying positive statements such as
"You can do it."
R10. I work with classmates to complete assignments or solve reading
comprehension problems.
R11. I use the context, like familiar words, pictures, and the content,
to help me guess the meanings of unfamiliar words I read.
R12. I identify what I don't understand in the reading, and I ask a
precise question to solve the problem.
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
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1: Essential Concepts
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
R13. I use reference materials (dictionary, textbook, the internet, etc.)
to help solve reading comprehension problems.
R14. After reading, I check to see if my predictions were correct.
R15. I summarize (in my head or in writing) important information
that I read.
R16. I rate my comprehension by reflecting on how much I
understood what I read.
R17. After reading, I decide whether the strategies or techniques I used
helped me understand, and I think of other strategies that could have
helped.
R18. I check whether I accomplished my goal for reading.
Other strategies:
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
LISTENING TO THE TARGET LANGUAGE
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
You may often listen to people speaking the target language--your teacher, classmates, and native
speakers (in person, on videos, on the internet), and you want to make sure you understand them.
How often do you do each of the following to help you understand what you hear in the target
language?
L1. I decide in advance what my listening purpose is, and I listen with
that goal in mind.
L2. I decide in advance specific aspects of information to listen for,
and I focus on hearing that information.
L3. Before I listen, I think of what I already know about the topic.
L4. Before listening, I try to predict what information I'll hear.
L5. While I listen, I periodically check whether the information is
making sense to me.
L6. While listening, I decide whether the information makes sense
based on what I already know about the topic.
L7. I imagine scenes or draw pictures of what I am hearing.
L8. I act out the situation as I hear it (for example, using real objects
to illustrate and put into context what I am listening to).
L9. I encourage myself as I listen by saying positive statements such
as "You can do it."
L10. I work with classmates to complete assignments or solve
listening comprehension problems.
L11. I use the context, like familiar words, pictures, and the content,
to help me guess the meanings of unfamiliar words I hear.
L12. I identify what I don't understand about what I'm hearing, and I
ask a precise question to solve the problem.
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
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Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
1: Essential Concepts
L13. I use reference materials (dictionary, textbook, the internet, etc.)
to help solve listening comprehension problems.
L14. After listening, I check to see if my predictions were correct.
L15. I summarize (in my head or in writing) important information
that I heard.
L16. I rate my comprehension by reflecting on how much I
understood what I heard.
L17. After listening, I decide whether the strategies or techniques I
used helped me understand, and I think of other strategies that could
have helped.
L18. I check whether I accomplished my goal for listening.
Other strategies:
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
SPEAKING IN THE TARGET LANGUAGE
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Part of learning and using a language is being able to speak it. In class you may have to answer
questions, talk to classmates, give reports and summaries, and give information about yourself.
Outside of class you might have conversations with native speakers and friends. How often do
you do each of the following to help yourself speak the target language?
S1. I decide my goal for speaking by thinking about what I want to
communicate.
S2. I think about what information is most important to the listener so
I can focus on it.
S3. Before speaking, I think of what I know about the topic.
S4. Before I start speaking, I brainstorm words and phrases I can use
when talking.
S5. I try to figure out if I'm not making sense to the listener so I can
correct myself.
S6. I focus on topics that I know how to talk about, and I use language
structures I am familiar with, so that others can understand me.
S7. I practice talking about things that relate to my own life and
personal experiences.
S8. I imagine or draw a picture or situation that I want to talk about to
help guide me when I'm speaking.
S9. I use real objects or act out the situation to illustrate and put into
context what I am talking about.
S10. I increase my confidence level by encouraging myself.
S11. I work with classmates to practice speaking the target language.
S12. If I don't know how to say something, I substitute what I do
know how to say.
S13. If I don't know how to say something, I ask a more proficient
speaker how to say it.
S14. If I don't how to say something, I look it up in reference
materials (dictionary, textbook, the internet, etc.)
S15. After speaking, I think about whether the words & phrases I
brainstormed helped the listener understand me.
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
1: Essential Concepts
S16. I mentally or verbally summarize what I've just said to see if
makes sense.
S17. After I speak, I rate how well I did.
S18. I assess whether the strategies I used for speaking helped me,
and I think of other strategies that could have helped.
S19. I check whether I have accomplished my goal in communication.
Other strategies:
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
WRITING IN THE TARGET LANGUAGE
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Writing is another activity you use for learning and using a new language. You may communicate
your ideas through journal entries, letters, short stories, or poems written in the target language.
How often do you do each of the following to help yourself write in the target language?
W1. Before I begin writing, I identify what I already know about the
topic.
W2. Before I write, I create an outline and/or graphic organizer
(concept map, flow chart, storyboard, Venn diagram, etc.) to plan and
organize the ideas that I will use in my writing.
W3. While I write, I periodically check whether my writing is clear
and organized.
W4. I imagine the characters and events that I am writing about.
W5. If dialogue is included in my writing, I imagine hearing the
characters talking to each other.
W6. I encourage myself by saying positive statements such as “Keep
up the good work.”
W7. I revise what I have written for accuracy, clarity, and depth.
W8. I work with classmates to revise my writing or solve writing
problems.
W9. I use reference materials (dictionary, textbook, the internet, etc.)
to help solve writing problems.
W10. I proofread my writing to improve capitalization, grammar,
spelling, and punctuation.
W11. I read my work (silently or out loud) to correct errors.
Other strategies:
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
VOCABULARY STRATEGIES IN THE TARGET LANGUAGE
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Vocabulary development is essential for language learning. The use of accurate and appropriate
vocabulary enables you to communicate effectively in the target language. How often do you do each
of the following to help yourself learn vocabulary words in the target language?
V1. As I think about a word in the target language, I imagine or draw
a picture of the object/idea the word represents.
V2. I think of something or someone in my life that the word reminds
me of, and I remember that connection when I need to recall the word.
V3. I make a point of learning words that relate to my life.
V4. I group words that are similar or are related in some way.
V5. I hold or point to an object while thinking or saying the word in
the target language.
V6. I think of an English word that looks or sounds like the word in
the target language, and I think about how the meanings are related.
V7. I look for structural rules (prefixes, suffixes, roots, etc.) that give
clues to the word's meaning.
V8. I think of an English word that sounds like the word in the target
language, AND I get a picture in my mind to link the meanings of the
English and the target language versions.
V9. I review new words with a classmate.
V10. I test myself to see if I have learned the words.
Other strategies:
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
After Completing the Questionnaire
Once you have completed the questionnaire, review your responses, noting which statements you
answered “Never” or “Rarely.” In some situations, these answers may identify metacognitive
and task based learning strategies that you can use to help yourself learn a new language.
To learn more about language learning strategies, visit Sailing the 5 C’s with Learning
Strategies, created by the National Capital Language Resource Center (NCLRC), at
http://www.nclrc.org/sailing/sgIndex.html. This site provides a list of 20 strategies that you can
use to take charge of your learning!
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
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Module 1, Appendix C: Learning Strategies List in English
METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES
Strategy
Description
Questionnaire Example(s)
Organize / Plan
-Plan the task or content sequence.
-Set goals.
-Plan how to accomplish the task.
R1, R2
L1, L2
S1, S2
Manage Your
Own Learning
-Determine how you learn best.
-Arrange conditions that help you
learn.
-Seek opportunities for practice.
-Focus your attention on the task.
V10
Monitor
While working on a task:
-Check your progress on the task.
-Check your comprehension as you
use the language. Are you
understanding?
-Check your production as you use
the language. Are you making
senses?
R5, R6, R12, R16
L5, L6, L12, L16
S5, S6, S17
W3, W7, W10, W11
Evaluate
After completing a task:
-Assess how well you have
accomplished the learning task.
-Assess how well you have applied
the strategies.
-Decide how effective the strategies
were in helping you accomplish the
task.
R17, R18
L17, L18
S18, S19
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
TASK BASED STRATEGIES: USE WHAT YOU KNOW
Strategy
Description
Questionnaire Examples
Use Background
Knowledge
-Think about and use what you already
know to help you do the task/
-Make associations.
R3
L3
S3
W1
Make Inferences
-Use context and what you know to
figure out meaning.
-Read and listen between the lines.
R11
L11
Make Predictions
-Anticipate information to come.
-Make logical guesses about what will
happen.
R4, R14
L4, L14
S4, S15
Personalize
-Relate new concepts to your own life,
that is, to your experiences, knowledge,
beliefs, and feelings.
S7
V2, V3
Transfer /
Use Cognates
-Apply your linguistic knowledge of
other languages (including your native
language) to the target language.
-Recognize cognates.
V6, V8
Substitute /
Paraphrase
-Think of a similar word or descriptive
phrase for words you do not know in
the target language.
S12
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
TASK BASED STRATEGIES: USE YOUR IMAGINATION
Strategy
Description
Questionnaire Examples
Use Imagery
-Use or create an image to understand
and/or represent information.
R7
L7
S8
W4, W5
V1, V8
Use Real Objects /
Role Play
-Act out and/or imagine yourself in
different roles in the target language.
-Manipulate real objects as you use the
target language.
R8
L8
S9
V5
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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1: Essential Concepts
TASK BASED STRATEGIES: USE YOUR
ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLS
Strategy
Description
Questionnaire Examples
-Apply a rule.
-Make a rule.
-Sound out and apply letter/sound
rules.
V7
-Relate or categorize words or ideas
according to attributes.
V4
Use Graphic
Organizers /
Take Notes
-Use or create visual representations
(such as Venn diagrams, timelines, and
charts) of important relationships
between concepts.
-Write down important words and
ideas.
W2
Summarize
-Create a mental, oral, or written
summary of information.
R15
L15
S16
Find / Apply
Patterns
Group / Classify
Use Selective
Attention
-Focus on specific information,
structures, key words, phrases, or ideas.
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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TASK BASED STRATEGIES: USE A VARIETY OF RESOURCES
Strategy
Access Information
Sources
Description
-Use the dictionary, the Internet, and
other reference materials.
-Seek out and use sources of
information.
-Follow a model.
-Ask questions.
Questionnaire Examples
R13
L13
S13, S14
W9
Cooperate
-Work with others to complete tasks,
build confidence, and give and receive
feedback.
R10
L10
S11
W8
V9
Talk Yourself
Through It
(Self-Talk)
-Use your inner resources. Reduce
anxiety by reminding yourself of your
progress, the resources you have
available, and your goals.
R9
L9
S10
W6
Teaching World Languages: A Practical Guide
© 2014 National Capital Language Resource Center
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