Basic Polarization Techniques and Devices
© 2005 Meadowlark Optics, Inc
This application note briefly describes polarized light, retardation and a few of
the tools used to manipulate the polarization state of light. Also included are
descriptions of basic component combinations that provide common light
manipulation tools such as optical isolators, light attenuators, polarization
rotators and variable beam splitters.
Light Polarization
In classical physics, light of a single color is described by an electromagnetic field in which
electric and magnetic fields oscillate at a frequency, (ν), that is related to the wavelength, (λ), as
shown in the equation
c = λν
where c is the velocity of light. Visible light, for example, has wavelengths from 400-750 nm.
An important property of optical waves is their polarization state. A vertically polarized wave is
one for which the electric field lies only along the z-axis if the wave propagates along the y-axis
(Figure 1A). Similarly, a horizontally polarized wave is one in which the electric field lies only
along the x-axis. Any polarization state propagating along the y-axis can be superposed into
vertically and horizontally polarized waves with a specific relative phase. The amplitude of the
two components is determined by projections of the polarization direction along the vertical or
horizontal axes. For instance, light polarized at 45° to the x-z plane is equal in amplitude and
phase for both vertically and horizontally polarized light (Figure 1B).
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Circularly polarized light is created when one linear electric field component is phase shifted in
relation to the orthogonal component by λ/4, as shown in Figure 1C.
Elliptically polarized light represents an arbitrary phase shift between the two electric field
components, as seen in Figure 1D.
We produce linearly polarized light when we send unpolarized light through a polarizing
medium whose axis is in line with the desired linear polarization. Passing this polarized light
through a second polarizer allows only the components that are parallel to the polarizing axis to
emerge while the orthogonal component is absorbed. If vertically polarized light is sent through
a polarizer oriented at 45° the emerging light is reduced in amplitude by a factor of 1/√2 and in
intensity by 50% of the original intensity. If vertically polarized light is sent through a
horizontally oriented polarizer no component of the original light is parallel to the polarization
direction and no light emerges.
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Retardation
Another useful tool for manipulating polarized light is the phase retarder. Phase retardation is
accomplished by making the optical path length for one of the orthogonal polarizations different
than the other.
Quarter Wave Retarder
If the orthogonal electric field components are equivalent, a phase shift in one component will
result in circularly polarized light, as shown in part C of Figure 1. Retarders that cause this shift
are known as quarter wave retarders. They have the unique property of turning elliptically
polarized light into linearly polarized light or of transforming linearly polarized light into
circularly polarized light when the fast axis of the quarter wave plate at 45° to the incoming
polarization plane. This is done using birefringent, uniaxial materials having two different
refraction indices. Light polarized along the direction with the smaller index travels faster and
thus this axis is termed the fast axis. The other axis is the slow axis.
Alignment of quarter wave retarders is accomplished with the use of a linear polarizer and a
mirror as demonstrated in Figure 2. Using a Polarizing Beam Splitter, vertically polarized light is
passed through a quarter wave plate and onto a mirror. When the angle between the fast axis of
the quarter wave plate and the polarization plane is at 45°, the reflected light has a polarization
that is 90° to the polarization of the original source. This maximizes the light at B and minimizes
the light at reference point A, as shown in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. A quarter wave alignment technique
Half Wave Retarder
A retarder that produces a λ/2 phase shift is known as a half wave retarder. Half wave retarders
can rotate the polarization of linearly polarized light to twice the angle between the retarder fast
axis and the plane of polarization. Placing the fast axis of a half wave retarder at 45° to the
polarization plane results in a polarization rotation of 90°.
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Passing circularly polarized light through a half wave plate changes the "handedness" of the
polarization. This is the same as shifting the horizontal polarization in Figure C by one λ.
Optical Isolators
Retarders used in conjunction with polarizers provide many useful devices. For example, optical
isolation can be achieved by combining a linear polarizer with a quarter wave retarder. Properly
aligning the quarter wave retarder with the linear polarizer turns linearly polarized light into
circularly polarized light. Because circularly polarized light exhibits a shift in handedness upon
specular reflection, the reflected light is now linearly polarized and rotated 90° from the light
leaving the isolator. Horizontally polarized light falling on a vertically aligned polarizer is
rejected.
Fig. 3. Demonstration of optical isolation
Optical Attenuators
An optical attenuator is built by combining two linear polarizers and a half wave plate. The input
and output polarizers are crossed so that no light passes through them, however, inserting the
half wave plate allows light to pass through the device. The amount of light is determined by the
angle between the optical axis of the incoming polarizer and half wave plate. Placing the half
wave plate's optical axis at 45° to the incoming polarizer achieves a maximum transmission;
aligning the optical axis of the half wave plate with either of the input or output polarizers optical
axes gives the minimum transmission. How close the minimum is to zero transmission depends
on the quality of the polarizers and half wave plate used in the device.
Replacing the half wave plate with a device that varies the polarization, such as a variable
retarder, creates a variable attenuator. This configuration is shown in Figure 4. When we align
the fast axis of the variable retarder at 45° to the input polarizer and modulate the retardance
between half wave and full wave, transmission varies between maximum and minimum
creating an optical shutter chopper.
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Fig. 4. The Variable Attenuator Configuration
Polarization rotator
A simple polarization rotator consists of a half wave plate in linear polarized light. Rotating the
half wave plate causes the polarization to rotate to twice the angle of the half wave plate's fast
axis with the polarization plane, as shown in Figure 5A. We achieve variable polarization
rotation by aligning the fast axis of a variable retarder at 45° to the incoming polarization and
following this component with a quarter wave retarder with it¹s slow axis aligned with the
incoming polarization as seen in Figure 5B. The amount of rotation achieved depends on the
amount of retardance exhibited by the first retarder. The polarization axis is rotated to an angle
that is one-half the phase shift provided by the variable retarder.
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Fig. 5. A demonstration of polarization rotation
Variable Beam Splitter
We can create a variable beam splitter by putting linearly polarized light through a half wave
plate in combination with a polarizing beam splitter. The polarization of the light through the
beam splitter governs the amount of light the beam splitter transmits and reflects. Aligning the
retarder axis with the input vertical polarization achieves total reflection by the beam cube.
Conversely, rotating the half wave plate's fast axis to a 45° angle with the input polarization
plane provides total transmission through the beam splitter. Replacing the half wave plate with a
variable retarder whose fast axis is at 45° to the incoming polarization gives us the same beam
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splitting results as before with no mechanical motion. Varying the retardance between the 0 and
half wave values creates an optical switch.
Conclusion
In this application note we have given a basic description of light polarization and some of the
tools used to control the polarization state of light. Retarders and polarizers were used in simple
devices that provide some of the common manipulations required wherever light is being
measured.
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