Name: _______________________
Blk:_______ Date:______________
Pax Romana:
Contributions to Society
Art and Architecture
1. What are the two most significant buildings erected during the Pax Romana?
2. The Pantheon was…
3. The Colosseum was…
4. Romans were the first to use ______________ in their buildings
5. What is Greco-Roman civilization?
6. One of the greatest achievements of Roman architecture was____________ ceilings.
7. What was the purpose of the Roman forum?
8. Give two of the most important facts you learned about Roman schooling:
1.
2.
Writing and Theater
1. The language spoken in Rome was _____________. This language is significant because….
2. Authors during the Pax Romana generally wrote either _____________ or _______________
literature.
3. Give two major writers at the time and explain their contributions to literature/learning:
1.
2.
4. All actors in Roman plays were ______________________________.
1
5. List two things you learned about Roman theater:
Sport and Leisure
1. What is the Circus Maximus and what took place there?
2. What is chariot racing?
3. What are gladiators, and who are they, usually?
4. How did Beastiarii impact Rome’s economy?
5. Why were emperors willing to pay for the games?
6. What is bread and circuses? Why was this a problem for Rome?
7. What are two other things Romans would do in their free time?
1.
2.
8. What in a Roman feast would you be willing to try?
Government and Society
1. The government was run by an _________________, who had
total _________________.
2. The government’s main responsibilities were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
2
3. What did the Romans do to run the empire more efficiently?
4. How did emperors unify Rome?
5. Name two bad emperors and why they were ineffective:
6. Name two good emperors and why they were effective:
Roman Law
1. Roman law has shaped ___________________________________ today.
2. Roman laws were intended to be ____________ and
_______________.
3. What is the difference between civil laws and jus gentium?
4. Why did Rome need to change from strictly jus civile to also jus gentium?
5. What are some Roman laws that are similar to ours today?
6. What do the laws in the 12 tables reflect about Roman life? Give an example.
Science and Engineering
1. What are three subjects that scientists were interested in studying?
1.
2.
3
3.
2. What are aqueducts? What is their purpose?
3. How did aqueducts change life in ancient Rome?
4. What are public baths? What is their purpose?
5. What was the original function of the Roman roads?
6. “All _______________ lead to _______________.” The road system of the
ancient Romans was __________________________________
___________________________________________________________
7. How many miles of paved road were radiating from the center of the
forum?
8. What type of science did Romans tend to pursue?
4
Station 1
Art and Architecture
In its early days, Rome absorbed ideas from Greek colonists in southern Italy, and it continued to
borrow heavily from Greek culture after Rome conquered Greece. Over time, Romans adapted
and transformed Greek and Hellenistic achievements just as the Greeks had once absorbed and
blended ideas and beliefs from Egypt and the Fertile Crescent. The mixing of Greek, Hellenistic,
and Roman traditions produced what is known as Greco-Roman civilization.
Roman buildings combine both Greek and Roman elements and
ideas. Roman builders used Greek columns. However, immense
palaces, temples, stadiums, and victory arches stood as mighty
monuments to roman power and dignity. The Romans improved
on devices such as the dome and the arch. One of the most
amazing features of Roman architecture was the vaulted ceiling.
Two of Rome’s most famous buildings erected during the Pax
Romana were the Pantheon and the Colosseum. The Pantheon is
Rome’s most famous domed structure and is a magnificent temple to
all Rome’s gods. The Colosseum was built of concrete and faced
with stones. Romans were the first to use concrete, and by only
covering the outside of the Colosseum with stones it was much
cheaper and easier to build. The Colosseum was used for gladiator
fights, mock naval battles, and other sporting events. The
Colosseum could hold about 50,000 spectators. Most of our modern
stadiums are built along the same format. The Romans designed the Colosseum so precisely that
it could be filled in 15 minutes and evacuated in 5!
5
The Roman Forum
The forum was the main marketplace and business center, where ancient Romans went to do
their banking, trading, shopping, and marketing. It was also a place for public speaking. The
ancient Romans aspired to be great orators. The job of their orators was not to argue, but to
speak persuasively. The Forum was also used for festivals and religious ceremonies. It was a
very busy place.
The Forum in Ancient Rome
The Forum today
Roman Schools
The Goal of education in ancient Rome was to be an effective speaker. The school day began
before sunrise, as did all work in Rome. Kids brought candles to use until daybreak. The school
year began each year on March 24th. Children were first home-schooled in law, history, customs,
reading, and writing by their father. Girls were taught by their mother to spin, weave, and sew.
At the age of 6 or 7, all boys and some girls went to school to learn reading, writing, and
counting. Later they went to grammar school, where they studied Latin, Greek, grammar, and
literature. School was not free, so most poor children (most of the population) could not attend.
6
Station 2
Writing and Theater
The language spoken in Rome was Latin. It is a significant language because it is the basis for
all the romance languages. Romance languages include French, Spanish, Italian, and Greek.
In literature, educated Romans admired the Greeks. Many spoke Greek and imitated Greek
styles in prose and poetry. Still, the greatest Roman writers used Latin to create their own
literature.
Authors during the Pax Romana generally wrote either fictional or historical literature. An
example of fictional literature from the time is Virgil’s epic poem, the Aeneid. Virgil tried to
show that Rome’s past was as heroic as that of Greece. Roman historians pursued their own
theme: the rise and fall of roman power. The historian Livy sought to rouse patriotic feelings
and restore traditional roman virtues to society by recalling images of Rome’s glorious past as a
republic. In his story of Rome, Livy recounted the tales of great heroes such as Cincinnatus.
Theaters
In Ancient Rome, plays were presented at the time of the games on contemporary wooden
stages. The first
such
permanent Roman
theater
was ordered to be
built by
Pompey in 55 BC,
eventually erected
on the
Campus Martius at
Rome.
Built of stone, it
had a
seating capacity of
27,000.
Essentially
patterned after the
Greek
theater, it differed
in the
respect that it was
built on
level ground.
Excavated out of
the sides
of hills, the circular
space
located in front of
the stage
in a Greek theater
was
called the orchestra, where choruses and actors performed. Since Roman plays usually lacked a
true chorus, the area in front of the stage which might have been an orchestra simply became a
semicircular area.
All actors in Roman plays were male slaves. Men played the parts of women. The typical stock
characters included the rich man, the king, the soldier, the slave, the young man, and the young
woman. If necessary, an actor would play two or more roles in a single performance.
The most notable part of an actor's regalia was probably his mask. While different masks and
wigs were used for comedies than tragedies, certain characteristics remained constant. All
7
masks had both cheek supports and special chambers which acted as amplifiers. Gray wigs
represented old men, black for young men, and red for slaves. Young men donned brightly
colored clothing, while old men wore white. In this manner the characters could be easily
identified by the audience.
Admission to the Roman plays was free for citizens. Originally, women were barred from
viewing comedies and were only admitted to tragedies, but later, no such restrictions were
imposed.
Pantomimes, popular during the 1st century BC, involved miming roles to accompaniment of
singers, dancers, and musicians, in addition to visual effects, similar to a ballet. In mimes of
antiquity actors spoke. Women were allowed in mimes and pantomimes, which were more
popular than typical plays but eventually degenerated into vulgar and disgusting tastelessness.
8
Station 3
Sport and Leisure
Rich and poor alike loved spectacular entertainment. At the Circus Maximus, Rome’s largest
race course, chariots thundered around an oval track, making dangerously tight turns at either
end. Fans bet feverishly on their favorite teams—the Reds, the Greens, the Blues, or the
Whites—and successful charioteers were hailed as heroes. Chariot racing was Rome’s oldest and
most popular pastime, dating back to before the Republic.
Greek chariot races were held in the hippodrome in the east, but in the west they were held in
circuses. If successful, a charioteer could
become
rich and famous throughout Rome. Images
of
charioteers survive in sculpture, mosaic, and
molded
glassware. The different colored teams were
rivals,
sometimes leading to violence among
supporters. The Greens and the Blues were
overall
favorites.
The circus itself was built around a ushaped
arena. At the open end of the “u” waited up
to twelve
four-horse chariots, which began the race from the starting gates. They raced around the course
counterclockwise for seven laps.
Gladiators
Several different types of shows all took place in the arena of an Amphitheater. The word arena
comes from the Latin for "sand," which was placed on the Amphitheater floor to soak up spilled
blood. Amphitheaters were most commonly used for gladiatorial matches which had been
adapted from Etruscan funeral rites (munera). By the last 1st century BC, however, the games
had lost their ritualistic significance.
Gladiators came from various lots of life. Originally, there
were gladiatorial schools, but these came under state control in
the 1st century BC to avoid them becoming private armies.
The majority of gladiators were either condemned criminals
(damnati), slaves, prisoners of war, or volunteers who signed
up to do shows for a fee. There were four main types of
gladiator:
Murmillo: Fought with a helmet adorned by a fish crest, an
oblong shield, and a sword. He usually fought a retiaritus.
Retiaritus: A lightly armed gladiator with a net, brandishing either a trident or a dagger.
Samnite: Utilized a sword, visor and helmet, and an oblong shield.
Thracian: Combated with a curved scimitar and round shield.
Various other weapons, women, and sometimes even dwarves were used in the games. Special
types of "wild animal matches" (venationes) were introduced in the 2nd Century BCE and
became very popular. Such bouts included men on foot and on horseback, known as beastiarii,
who were usually either criminals, prisoners of war, or trained and paid fighters. Beastiarii
9
fought exotic animals, which eventually led to an extensive trade market. Originally, wild
animal matches took place on the morning of the games, the public executions were held at
midday, and then the gladiatorial matches. Over time, however, these divisions became blurred,
and often many fights would take place at once, giving the appearance of a battle. Other
spectacles included mock naval battles (naumachiae), known to take place on artificial lakes, as
well as animal performances, accompanied by music.
Magistrates used private games to gain support in elections. The emperors successfully
continued this practice and the games became more lavish as each tried to out-do is predecessor.
Enormous amounts of money were spent on games, yet they were free to the people. To
emperors who paid for them with taxes, these amusements were a way to control the city’s
restless mobs. In much the same spirit, the government provided free grain to the poor. Critics
warned against this policy of “bread and circuses” but no one listened. During the Pax Romana
the general prosperity hid underlying social and economic problems. Later Roman emperors,
however, would face problems that could not be brushed away so easily.
Other Leisure Activities
For the wealthy, entertainment could take place at home as
hosted their own dinner parties and lavish banquets. Along
dinner could be music, singing, and dancing by
professionals. In some circles, recitation of written work,
poetry and speeches, followed. For the plebeians,
associations (collegia) may have thrown dinner parties.
they
with
such as
Eating and drinking for the poor usually meant frequenting
taverns,
ranging from brothels to gaming houses and everything in-between. Gaming was popular among
all classes, and included pastimes such as dice, knucklebones, and gaming counters. Board
games were played by adults as well as children. Traditional children's games, such as hide-andgo-seek and leap frog are depicted in Ancient Roman art. Children's toys have also been found.
For the wealthy, hunting and fishing may have provided leisurely sport, but for the poorer these
activities were more often a necessity.
The recipes below show what wealthy Romans would have consumed on special occasions.
Stuffed Kidneys - Serves 4
8 lambs kidneys.
2 heaped tspn fennel seed (dry roasted in pan).
1 heaped tspn whole pepper corns.
4 oz pine nuts.
1 large handful fresh coriander.
2 tbspn olive oil.
2 tbspn fish sauce.
4 oz pigs caul or large sausage skins.
Skin the kidney, split in half and remove the fat and fibres. In a mortar, pound the fennel seed
with the pepper to a coarse powder. Add this to a food processor with the pine nuts. Add the
washed and chopped coriander and process to a uniform consistency. Divide the mixture into 8
10
and place in the centre of each kidney and close them up. If you have caul use it to wrap the
kidneys up to prevent the stuffing coming out. Similarly stuff the kidney inside the sausage skin.
Heat the oil and seal the kidneys in a frying pan. Transfer to an oven dish and add the fish
sauce. Finish cooking in a medium oven. Serve as a starter or light snack with crusty bread and
a little of the juice.
Pear Patina - Serves 4
1½ lb firm pears.
10fl oz red wine.
2 oz raisins.
4 oz honey.
1 tspn ground cumin.
1 tbspn olive oil.
2 tbspn fish sauce.
4 eggs.
plenty of freshly ground black pepper.
Peel and core the pears and cook in the wine, honey and raisins until tender. Strain and process
the fruit and return to the cooking liquor. Add the cumin, oil and fish sauce and the eggs well
beaten. Pour into a greased shallow dish and bake in a preheated oven (375º F) for 20 mins or
until set. Let the custard stand for 10 mins before serving warm.
Libum - Serves 2
10 oz ricotta cheese.
1 egg.
2½ oz plain flour.
Runny honey.
Beat the cheese with the egg and add the sieved flour very slowly and gently. Flour your hands
and pat mixture into a ball and place it on a bay leaf on a baking tray. Place in moderate oven
(400ºF) until set and slightly risen. Place cake on serving plate and score the top with a cross.
our plenty of runny honey over the cross and serve immediately.
11
Station 4
Government and Society
During the Pax Romana, the government was run by an emperor who had total control. The
emperors’ main responsibilities included maintaining order, enforcing the laws, defending the
borders, and providing relief in the event of natural disaster (as in the case of the eruption of
Vesuvius).
Like in the Republic before it, the Empire was divided into provinces controlled by governors.
Unlike the Republic, the emperor maintained control over the governors and unified Rome
through uniform laws.
Like every nation, Rome had its share of good and bad leaders. Here are just a few…
The Bad
Caligula (37-41 CE)
After Tiberius dies in Capri, Gaius Caesar is named emperor. He is known
as Caligula, or 'little boots' - a nickname given to him as a boy by the
soldiers of his father, Germanicus, because of the small army boots he once
wore. Caligula saw himself as an absolute ruler, and had great disdain for
the Senate. The greatest symbol of this hatred was his decision to appoint
his horse as consul. He also held many parties for his horse, and they
could sometimes be seen at the theater together.
Caligula's cruel tyranny provokes huge opposition and many plots.
Although he tries to crush them, new plots replace those he has
discovered. Eventually a tribune, named Cassius Chaerea, corners and
kills him. After his murder, his uncle, Claudius, is discovered in the palace hiding behind a
curtain. Soldiers carry him off to their camp where they persuade him to become the new
emperor.
Nero (54-68 CE)
Nero came to power through the pressure of his mother, who
bore
over him throughout his life. He eventually had her killed,
which
caused him to be unpopular with the people. He offered the
people
bread and created public baths, which stopped some of the
outcry.
The Great Fire of Rome began on July 18 and lasted for six days
and
seven nights. Of Rome's 14 districts only four remain untouched.
Rumors circulated that Nero had been singing and dancing while
Rome
burned. In order to divert attention away from himself, Nero
blamed
the Christians. He ordered some to be thrown to the lions; many
others
are crucified.
Nero discovered that many people were conspiring to kill him,
and he
lashed out. The poets Lucan, Seneca and the novelist Petronius
are
among those who lost their lives in the purge that follows. Increasingly alone and paranoid, Nero
kicks his wife Poppaea to death while she is pregnant and ill. Reportedly, this is for complaining
that he came home late from the races.
12
Support for Nero dwindled and he is declared a public enemy by the Senate, meaning anyone can
kill him without being punished. Terrified, and abandoned by everyone, except a few of his
slaves, Nero flees to the country. There he commits suicide, ending the dynasty of Augustus.
The Good
Nerva (96-98 CE) and Trajan (98-117 CE)
Nerva rules fairly but never gains the full support of the army, much of which remained loyal to
the previous emperor. Towards the end of Nerva's
life,
Roman generals co-operate for the first time to
choose the next emperor. They force Nerva to adopt
an
acceptable heir from outside his own family. The
result is resoundingly successful, as a Spanish-born
Senator and general named Trajan becomes emperor.
In
Trajan Rome, the empire grew to its largest
territorial extent. He undertook vast building
programs and enlarged social welfare. He was a
benevolent ruler, cutting taxes and helping the poor. Trajan's reign takes Rome one more step
toward universality. Now, educated and wealthy men from all over the Empire are eligible for
the highest office.
Hadrian (117-138 CE)
A cultured scholar, fond of all things Greek, Hadrian travelled all over the
empire. He was attentive to the army and the provincials, and left behind him
spectacular buildings such as the Pantheon in Rome and his villa at Tivoli.
But his greatest legacy to the empire was his establishment of its frontiers,
marking a halt to imperial expansion.
In Africa he built walls to control the transhumance routes, and in Germany
he built a palisade with watch towers and small forts to delineate Romancontrolled territory. In Britain, he built the stone wall which bears his name,
perhaps the most enduring of his frontier lines.
He was truly a pivotal emperor, in that he divided what was Roman from
what was not. Apart from minor adjustments, no succeeding emperor reversed his policies.
13
Station 5
Roman Law
“Let justice be done,” proclaimed a Roman saying, “though the heavens fall!” Probably the
greatest legacy of Rome was its commitment to the rule of law and to justice—ideas that have
shaped western civilizations today.
The laws of Rome were intended to be impartial and
humane. During the Republic, Romans made use of
civil laws (jus civile), which are laws that applied to the
citizens of Rome. As Rome expanded, however, it ruled
many foreigners who were not covered under civil law.
Gradually, a second system of law, known as the law of
nations (jus gentium), emerged. It applied to all people
under Roman rule, citizens or non-citizens. Later,
when Rome extended citizenship across the empire, the
two systems merged.
During the Roman Empire, the rule of law fostered unity and stability. Many centuries later,
the principles of Roman law would become the basis for legal systems in Europe and Latin
America. As Roman law developed, certain basic principles evolved. Many of these are familiar
to Americans today. Among them are these ideas…
• People of the same status were guaranteed equal protection under the law
• People were innocent until proven guilty
• The accused should be allowed to face his or her accuser and defend against the charge
• Guilt must be established “clearer than
daylight” through evidence
• Decisions should be based on fairness,
allowing judges to interpret the law
The Romans thought law should reflect
of reason and justice, and should protect the
person and property. Their idea that law
based on just and rational principles could
all people, regardless of nationality, was a
contribution.
principles
citizens’
could be
apply to
major
14
Station 6
Science and Engineering
Romans excelled in the practical arts of building, perfecting their engineering skills as they built
roads, bridges, and harbors throughout the empire. Roman roads were so solidly built that many
of them remained in use long after Rome fell. In addition, three things that scientists were most
interested in studying included public health, sanitation, and engineering.
Roman engineers built many immense aqueducts, or bridge like stone structures that brought
water from the hills into Roman cities. In Segovia, Spain, a Roman aqueduct still carries water
along a stone channel supported by tiers of arches. The availability of fresh water was important
to the Romans. Wealthy homes had water piped in, and almost every city boasted both female
and male public baths. Here people gathered not only to wash themselves but also to hear the
latest news and exchange gossip.
The Romans are perhaps the most famous aqueduct builders of the ancient era. In fact, the word
“aqueduct” is derived from the Latin words aqua (“water”) and ducere (“to lead”). Within a
period of about 500 years, the Romans constructed eleven major aqueducts to supply Rome with
water. The first Roman aqueduct, Aqua Appia, was built around 312 BCE. By the time the
eleventh aqueduct, Aqua Alexandrina, was completed in 226 CE, Rome was being watered by
359 miles of aqueducts and was receiving about 50 million gallons of water each day. In addition
to building aqueducts for Rome, the Romans also build aqueducts for regions throughout their
empire, including France, Spain, and Northern Africa. Remains of most of these aqueducts still
exist, and a few such as the one in Segovia, Spain, are still in use.
Public Baths
In the time of the Roman empire, baths were a place of leisure time during many Romans daily
routine. People from nearly every class - men, women, and children - could attend the thermae,
or public baths, similar to modern day fitness clubs and community centers. The two most well
preserved baths of ancient Rome are the baths of Diocletian and Caracalla. Diocletian's baths
cover an enormous 32 acres, and now, the ruins include two Roman churches, St. Mary of the
Angels and the Oratory of St. Bernard. The baths of Caracalla cover 27 acres.
15
Towards the center of the Roman baths,
adjoining the dressing room, could be found the
tepidarium, an exceedingly large, vaulted and
mildly heated hall. This could be found
surrounded on one side by the frigidarium, a
large, chilled swimming pool about 200 feet by
100 feet, and on the other side by the calidarium,
an
area for hot bathing warmed by
subterranean steam.
Not only were the baths meant for leisure,
but also, for social gathering. In addition to
the bathing areas could be found portico
shops, marketing everything from food, to
ointments, to clothing. There were also
sheltered gardens and promenades,
gymnasiums, rooms for massage, libraries,
and museums. Complimenting these
scholarly havens were slightly more
aesthetic marble statues and other artistic masterpieces.
Roman Roads
The Romans built roads so that the army could march from one place to another easily. They
tried to build the roads as straight as possible, so that the army could take the shortest route
through the empire.
How the roads were built:
1. First, the army builders would clear the ground of rocks and trees. They then dug a trench
where the road was to go and filled it with big stones.
2. Next, they put in big stones, pebbles, cement and sand which they packed down to make a
firm base.,
3. Then they added another layer of cement mixed with broken tiles.
4. On top of that, they then put paving stones to make the surface of the road. These stones
were cut so that they fitted together tightly.
16
5. Kerb stones were put at the sides of the road to hold in the paving stones and to make a
channel for the water to run away.
It is often said that "all roads lead to Rome," and in fact, they once did. The road system of the
Ancient Romans was one of the greatest engineering accomplishments of its time, with over
50,000 miles of paved road radiating from their center at the miliarius aurem in the Forum in
the city of Rome. Although the Roman road system was originally built to facilitate the
movement of troops throughout the empire, it was inevitably used for other purposes by civilians
then and now.
The Romans generally left scientific research to the Greeks, who were by that time citizens of the
empire. While the Romans rarely did original scientific investigations, they did put science to
practical use. They applied geography to make maps and medical knowledge to help doctors
improve public health. Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar, compiled volumes of encyclopedias on
geography, zoology, botany, and other topics all based on the work of others.
17