Early Migrations, Forts
and Indian Removal
Early Migrations
 Even though early explorers called the land of “Oklahoma”
the “Great American Desert”, many Native Americans found
it ideal for hunting and trading.
 Tribes sometimes moved from one area to another to find
better food sources or to escape enemy tribes. The average
territory or roaming area for many Plains Indians was 500
to 800 miles.
Migrations
 Wichita tribe – from northern part of Ok to southern Red
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River Valley (escape hated enemy, Osage)
Caddo – Red River (SE part). Sociable, industrious. Used sign
language to trade with other tribes
Shawnee – early 1800’s all around Ok
Kiowa – drifted to Central Plains, fought Comanche. Later in
1700’s became allies. In 1833, Osage warriors attacked a
Kiowa camp in southwestern Oklahoma killing some 150
Kiowa in what is now called the Cutthroat Massacre.
Osage - lived between the Missouri River and the Arkansas
River which includes northeastern Oklahoma. Fought with
everyone.
Comanche – from Wyoming in 1700’s
Kichai – from Texas and Louisiana to western Ok by 1800’s
More migrations..
 Quapaw – more peaceful than Osage, started in eastern Ok,
but disease and conflict ended them in northeast Ok
 Western Cherokee – late 1700’s from Tennessee River, big
fights with Osage. Ft. Smith established to stop their
fighting
 Salina – Oldest permanent white settlement in Ok.
Originally a trading post with the Osage. Established by
Chouteau brothers
Early Forts
 In an attempt to halt violence between tribes that discouraged other
tribes from relocating to Oklahoma, the US Secretary of War ordered
the establishment of Fort Smith.
 Originally known as Cantonment, Fort Gibson was established on the
Grand River by Colonel Matthew Arbuckle to protect white people and
Native Americans in the area.
 While work had been underway on Fort Gibson, Arbuckle had other
troops at the joining of the Red and Kiamichi Rivers called Towson.
 Soldiers regulated the trade between Native Americans and white people
and helped to keep the peace in the region.
 Later, this Fort would help to protect the relocated Cherokee.
 Federal funds were appropriated to build a road from Fort Smith to Fort
Towson.
Ft. Smith
(Oklahoma and Arkansas border but NOT in Oklahoma)
Commisary
“Hanging” Judge Parker’s
Courtroom
Hell on the Border
The
Gallows
Edge of Ft. Smith, overlooking the Arkansas
River into Oklahoma
Overlook of where the Trail of Tears passed
What Ft. Gibson or Ft. Townson would have
looked like
Indian Removals
 Early 1800’s:
 Treaties were signed with Indian nations to secure
peace, gain land, and to trade
 Hoped these treaties would also keep Indian tribes as
allies to U.S. (and make them “civilized”)
 Hoped Indians would shift from hunting to farming
and European-style way of life
 Most European settlers considered Indians inferior
 Various treaties effectively took away so much
Indian land that the tribes had no choice but to give
in to the pressure and move west.
Cherokee Outlet
Treaty included:
7 million acres in northeastern Ok (60 mile wide strip to the border of
the U.S. territory . This strip became known as the “Cherokee Outlet”.
$50,000 for the inconvenience of moving
$2,000 a year for three years for livestock
$2,000 a year for ten years for education
$1,000 for printing press and type
$500 to Sequoyah for the “great benefits he has conferred to the Cherokee
people.
Few Cherokee’s took this offer, but this treaty laid the groundwork for
eventually relocating the eastern Cherokee to Indian Territory.
Cherokee Outlet
White settlers continued to press into Western Cherokee land in Arkansas. In 1828,
the Western Cherokee agreed to exchange their Arkansas land for land in Indian
Territory.
Forced removals – how?
 Treaties
 Pressure
 Abuse by citizens
 Laws passed by states which violated federal treaties
 Failure of the U.S. military to protect the tribes
 Failure of the U.S. Gov’t to make states comply with
policy
 Indian Removal Act
Removals
 Since 1803, U.S. Presidents and Congress had
different views on what to do with the American
Indians
 Two most favored views:
 1) assimilation in white man’s culture
 2) relocation
 1817: President James Monroe said Indians must be
removed from the Southeast U.S. for the nation’s
security
President Andrew Jackson
(1829-1837)
 Advocated removal as best for whites and Indians
 Supported removal of all Indians, even those who adopted
Euro-American lifestyle
 Successfully pushed Congress to pass Indian Removal Act
(1830)
 Oklahoma, Kansas, southern Nebraska and eastern Colorado
became “Indian Territory” in 1834
Indian Removal Act
 Congress passed act to negotiate treaties to get tribes to
move west of Mississippi River
 Those who stayed would become citizens of the state, but many
white settlers refused to accept the Indian’s presence
 Removal was supposed to be voluntary and peaceful but land
greedy residents increased violent activity against Indian tribes
without consequence of law
 U.S. and state gov’t had no regard for well-being of Indians
 Simply wanted them gone and would do what was necessary to
complete their mission