The Discrepancy-Depression Association: Gender and Grade Differences
Erin N. Stevens, M. C. Lovejoy, & Laura D. Pittman
Northern Illinois University
Introduction:
Method: Measures
o Although boys and girls have similar levels of depression during childhood, rates
of depression in girls surpass that in boys with the onset of adolescence (e.g.,
Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994).
o Child depression: Depressive symptoms were assessed using the short version
of the CDI. The CDI short version is a 10-item paper-and-pencil questionnaire that
provides a rapid assessment of depressive symptoms (α = .81; Kovacs, 1992).
o Self-discrepancy theory (SDT; Higgins, 1987) represents a framework for
understanding how incompatible beliefs about the self induce different types of
negative affect, including depressive symptoms.
o Among adults, actual-ideal discrepancies are larger for depressed than
nondepressed individuals (e.g., Fairbrother & Moretti, 1998; Higgins, Klein, &
Strauman, 1985; Scott & O’Hara, 1993; Strauman, 1992; Strauman & Higgins,
1988). However, there is limited research examining the relation of selfdiscrepancy to depression in children and adolescents.
o Self-discrepancies: Discrepancies between actual and ideal selves were
measured using an adaptation of the Selves Questionnaire that is traditionally
used to measure self-discrepancy in adult samples (e.g., Higgins, 1987).
o Ideal-self: participants generated five ‘ideal’ attributes and rated the degree to
which they ideally would like to possess each attribute (7-point scale)
o Actual-self: participants were provided with a list of their five ideal-self
attributes and rated the degree to which they currently possess each
o Actual:Ideal discrepancies were calculated by subtracting the score for each
actual attribute from the score for the corresponding ideal attribute
o Developmental considerations:
o SDT postulates that cognitive-developmental changes in early adolescence
underlie the development of self-discrepancies (Higgins, 1989).
o Gender differences in the strength of the association between self-discrepancy
and depression may also emerge during adolescence, a time during which
depression becomes more prevalent in girls than boys (Nolen-Hoeksema &
Girgus, 1994).
o The purpose of this study was to (1) examine the variance in depressive
symptoms explained by self-discrepancies, beyond that which is accounted for by
actual-self ratings (i.e., how positive individuals perceive themselves), and (2)
test the developmental postulates of SDT.
o Specifically, gender and age were examined as potential moderators in the
relationship between actual:ideal discrepancies and depressive symptoms,
after controlling for actual-self positivity, in a youth sample. We also examined
the three-way interaction between discrepancies, gender, and age.
Method: Participants and Procedure
o Fifth and eighth grade students (N = 220) were recruited from Illinois and Iowa
elementary and middle schools
o Exclusions: improper administration of the measures (n = 16), incomplete data
sets (i.e., not present for Time 2; n = 9), more than two excluded attributes (n = 3),
o The final sample included 192 youth
Simple Slopes Analyses:
(5th
grade n = 122;
8th
grade n = 70).
o Ethnicity: 72% percent of the children and adolescents were Caucasian, 15%
were Hispanic or Latino, 5% were biracial, 3% were Black or African American,
1% percent were Asian, and 4% chose not to answer this item
o 67% of the participants attended a public school; 33% attended a Catholic school
o Participants completed questionnaires on two days:
o At Time 1, participants completed the ideal-self measure.
o Two weeks later, at Time 2, participants completed the actual-self measure
and the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1992).
o The order of the measures for Time 2 were counterbalanced.
Results:
o Descriptive statistics were calculated (see Table 1), and a hierarchical regression
was conducted to examine the moderating role of grade and gender in the
relationship between actual:ideal discrepancies and depressive symptoms, after
accounting for actual-self ratings (see Table 2).
o However, the three-way interaction was non-significant (β = .31, p = .14).
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Study 2 Variables (N = 192)
Males
Females
Variable
M
SD
M
SD
1
2
3
5th gradersa
1. Actual-Self Ratings
4.76
0.96
4.80
1.12
--0.80***
-0.43***
2. Actual:Ideal Discrepancies
1.17
0.95
1.08
1.07
-0.76***
-0.55***
3. Depressive Symptoms
2.31
2.52
2.53
2.99
-0.27*
0.22^
-8th gradersb
1. Actual-Self Ratings
4.75
0.87
4.64
1.06
--0.76***
-0.61***
2. Actual:Ideal Discrepancies
1.02
0.71
1.20
1.02
-0.68***
-0.80***
3. Depressive Symptoms
1.84
1.90
3.05
3.62
-0.28
0.25
-Note. Intercorrelations for male participants are presented below each diagonal, and intercorrelations for female participants are
presented above each diagonal. Depressive Symptoms = Children’s Depressive Inventory (CDI), short form.
a
n = 122. b n = 70.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Table 2
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting CDI Scores
Variable
B
SE B
β
R2
Step 1
.17
Actual-Self Rating
-1.17***
.19
-.42***
Step 2
.25
Actual-Self Rating
-.27
.28
-.10
Grade
.02
.19
.01
Gender
.28
.18
.10
Actual:Ideal Discrepancies
1.22***
.29
.41***
Step 3
.33
Actual-Self Rating
-.24
.26
-.09
Grade
-.02
.18
-.01
Gender
.25
.17
.09
Actual:Ideal Discrepancies
1.19***
.28
.40***
Grade x Actual:Ideal Discrepancies
.46*
.20
.15*
Gender x Actual:Ideal Discrepancies
.64***
.18
.22***
Note: ^p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
∆
∆R2
.17***
.08***
.08***
o Simple slopes analyses revealed that for both 5th and 8th graders, the
relationship between discrepancies and depressive symptoms was significantly
different from zero, β = .29, p < .01, and β = .60, p < .001 (see Figure 1).
o The relationship between discrepancies and depressive symptoms differed as a
function of gender, such that for girls, the relationship was significantly different
from zero, β = .62, p < .001; for boys, however, the relationship was not
significantly different from zero, β = .19, p = .11 (see Figure 2).
Conclusions:
o This study allowed for a more fine-grained analysis of how the relationship
between self-discrepancies and depressive symptoms changes over the course
of development.
o Importantly, while there was not a significant three-way interaction, it is likely that
the observed pattern of results is primarily driven by the girls in our sample.
o For the 5th and 8th grade boys, the relationship between actual:ideal
discrepancies and depressive symptoms may be accounted for by actual-self
ratings, or how positive they perceive themselves to be.
o For girls, however, the findings point to a developmental pattern that suggests
that actual:ideal discrepancies become more important to the prediction of
depressive symptoms as the girls mature.
o Overall the findings demonstrated a difference between males and females in the
depression-cognition association that emerged sometime in mid-adolescence
and could be related to the heightened risk for depression in girls, compared to
boys in this age group.
o While age is often a poor proxy for developmental level (Siegler, 1996), recent
work suggests cognitive development may play an important role in the links
between self-discrepancies and negative emotions (Stevens et al., 2013).
o It may be that there is a necessary level of cognitive maturity needed in order
for self-discrepancies to be related to depressive symptoms.
Correspondence concerning this poster should be addressed to:
Erin N. Stevens, M.A., Department of Psychology,
Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115
estevens@niu.edu