Ch. 3-Researching the Social World
I.
Research and Science of Sociology
a. Scientific Method-a systematic procedure for acquiring knowledge
based on empirical evidence. Data is gathered from both
experience and observation.
b. It is important to understand how sociology deals with the gap
between common sense and social scientific knowledge, especially
when analyzing the perceptions that are widely held, such as the
association between the rich and the poor in the United States.
Common sense and media culture gives Americans the impression
that wealth is evenly distributed; scientific data reveals that the
wealthy (the top 20% of US population) actually controls 84% of
the total wealth in the US. While common sense is essential to our
understanding of social phenomena, it is important for us to use
systematic scientific principles to understand the social world as
well.
Weber: research should be “value-free,” free of personal bias.
c. A long-standing debate within sociology is whether the discipline
is best described using scientific principles. Comte believed that
society was governed by laws and it was sociology’s task to
uncover these laws (positivism). He also believed it was
sociology’s task to instigate social reform. Herbert Spencer
believed in Social Darwinism. Is sociology’s purpose science or
social reform? “What is” vs “what ought to be”
d. Research Terms:
Concept: abstract idea that must be defined
Variable: concepts that vary
Independent variable: cause
Dependent variable: effect
Hypothesis: theoretical statement linking the independent variable
with the dependent variable; educated guess
Operationalizing a variable: defining a variable in order to measure
it
Validity-measures what it is supposed to measure
Reliability-consistency in measurement
Ch. 3-Researching the Social World
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Correlation-relationship between two variables: change in one is
accompanied by a change in another. First step to prove a cause
and effect relationship
Cause and effect-three conditions must be met:
Correlation, time-order, rule out alternative explanations
II.
Steps in the Research Process
a. Formulating the problem
Identify problem
Review literature
Specify research question
Develop a hypothesis
b. Measurement
Translate abstract concepts into concrete variables
Specify the variables in the hypothesis
Operationally define variable-how are concepts and variables
measured
c. Choosing a research design-some involves testing of hypotheses,
some is exploratory; consider time, money
Determine the population and sample
Population: entire group from which samples may be drawn; if you
collect information on the entire population, it’s called a census
Sample: subset of the population from which you are actually
collecting data
Choose the method:
a. Survey: an ordered series of questions intended to elicit
information from respondents. It is the most common type of
research design includes questionnaires and interviews,
Advantages: least expensive, least time-consuming
Disadvantages: low rate of response; biased questions
b. Field observation, includes participant observation
Advantage: qualitative research, rich data
Disadvantage: time-consuming, expensive
c. Experiment-directly observe effect of independent variable on
dependent variable
Advantage: accurate data
Disadvantage: Hawthorne effect, ethical problems
d. Secondary Analysis-existing sources such as census data;
content analysis (mass media)
Ch. 3-Researching the Social World
Advantage: makes historical research possible
Disadvantage: no control on how data was collected
e. Analyzing and interpreting data
Quantitative/qualitative
Accept or reject hypothesis
Measures of central tendency: mean, median and mode
f. Evaluating the results-developing the conclusion
Identify problems, new questions
Prepare formal report
III.
The Ethics of Research
a. Safety: “Do no harm.”
b. Confidentiality
c. Informed Consent
d. Voluntary Participation
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