Psikologi Anak
Pertemuan 8
Social context of Development
Family Processes
Interactions in the Family
System
• Reciprocal socialization:
Socialization that is
bidirectional with children
socializing parents as parents
socialize children.
– Dyadic (two-person) and
polyadic (more than two
people) systems interact and
influence each other.
– Promoting marital satisfaction
often leads to good
parenting.
Family Processes
• Cognition and Emotion in Family Processes
– The role of cognition in family socialization comes in many
forms, e.g., parents’ cognitions, beliefs, and values about
their parental role; how parents perceive, organize, and
understand the children's behaviors and beliefs.
– Children’s social competence is linked to their parents’
emotional lives.
– Parental support and acceptance of children’s emotions is
related to children’s ability to manage emotions positively.
Family Processes
Developmental Construction Views
Views sharing the belief that as individuals grow up,
they acquire modes of relating to others. There are
two main variations of this view:
• The Continuity View
– A developmental view that emphasizes the role of early parentchild relationships in constructing a basic way of relating to
people.
• The Discontinuity View
– A developmental view that emphasizes change and growth in
relationships over time.
Sociocultural and Historical Changes
• Family changes may be due to great upheavals in a nation,
or they may be due more to subtle transitions in ways of
life.
Parenting
• The Parental Role
– The parental role may be well planned and coordinated
with other roles in life, or a startling surprise; either way,
prospective parents may have mixed emotions and many
misperceptions about having a child.
– Parents manage their children’s lives, with the managerial
role changing as the child matures.
• Mothers are more likely than fathers to be managers.
• Parents regulate children’s opportunities for social
contact.
• Parents monitor children’s activities and friends.
• Adapting Parenting to Developmental Changes
in the Child
Parenting
Parenting Styles
Parenting
Punishment
• corporal punishment, research suggests that it is
associated with:
– Higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression by
children.
– Lower levels of moral internalization and mental health.
– Behavioral problems in middle and late childhood.
• Reasons to avoid corporal punishment:
– Children imitate aggressive behavior.
– Punishment can instill fear, rage, or avoidance.
– Punishment tells children what not to do rather than what
to do.
– Punishment can be abusive.
• Reasoning is more favorable
Autonomy and Attachment between
Adolescents and Parents
• Good parenting takes time and effort
– Conflict when adolescents push for autonomy;
gradual release of control is best
– Gender and culture affect seeking and granting
autonomy
– Parent-child attachment remains important
• Parent-adolescent conflicts
Parenting
• Child Maltreatment
– Types of Child Maltreatment
Physical abuse
Infliction of physical injury
Child neglect
Failure to provide basic needs
Sexual abuse
Fondling child’s genitals, sodomy,
intercourse, incest, exhibitionism,
rape, and commercial exploitation
Emotional
abuse
Acts or omissions by parents or
other caregivers that have caused,
or could cause, serious behavioral,
cognitive, or emotional problems
• Developmental Consequences of Abuse
Siblings
• Sibling Relationships
– In dealing with peers, coping with difficult teachers, and
discussing such taboo subjects as sex, siblings may be
more influential than parents in the socialization process.
– Aggression and dominance occur more in same-sex sibling
relationships than opposite-sex sibling relationships.
• Birth Order
– The oldest sibling is more dominant, competent, and
powerful than younger siblings; they are more antagonistic
and more nurturant toward younger siblings than vice
versa.
– First-born children are more adult-oriented, helpful,
conforming, anxious, and self-controlled; they excel in
academic and professional endeavors and also have more
guilt, anxiety, and difficulty coping with stressful situations.
The Changing Family in a Changing
Social World
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Working Parents
Divorce
Stepfamilies
Same-sex parents
Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations
in Families
Peers
Children of about the same age or maturity level
Peer relation
– Peer Group Functions
– Peers: Children of about the same age or maturity
level.
– One of the most important functions of the peer
group is to provide a source of information and
comparison about the world outside the family.
– Peer interactions also fill socioemotional needs.
Peer Relations
• The Developmental Course of Peer Relations in
Childhood
– The preference for spending time with same-sex playmates
begins around age 3 and increases in early childhood, with
reciprocity becoming important as children enter the elementary
school years.
– Increasing amount of time in peer interaction during middle and
late childhood and adolescence.
– Gender influences the composition and size of children’s
interactions, with girls’ groups being smaller and more intimate.
– Boys are more likely to engage in rough-and-tumble play,
competition, conflict, ego displays, risk taking, and dominance
seeking, while girls are more likely to engage in collaborative
discourse.
Peer Relations
Parental Influence
• Affects children’s peer relations directly and
indirectly.
• Parents coach their children in ways of relating
to peers
• Parents manage their children’s lives and
opportunities for interacting with peers.
• Parent-child relationships serve as emotional
bases for exploring and enjoying peer
relations.
Peer Relations
Social Cognition and Emotion
– Social Knowledge
• The social cognitive perspective views children who are
maladjusted as lacking social cognitive skills to interact
effectively with others
– Emotion
• The ability to regulate emotion is linked to successful
peer relations.
Peer Relations
• Peer Statuses
– Popular children are frequently nominated as a best friend
and are rarely disliked by their peers.
– Average children receive an average number of positive
and negative nominations from peers.
– Neglected children are infrequently nominated as a best
friend but are not disliked by their peers.
– Rejected children are infrequently nominated as a best
friend and are actively disliked by their peers.
– Controversial children are frequently nominated both as
someone’s best friend and as being disliked.
Peer Relations
• Bullying
– Significant numbers of students are victimized by bullies.
– Bullies are more likely to have low grades and to smoke
and drink alcohol.
– Victims of bullies are more lonely, have difficulty making
friends, and have a higher incidence of headaches,
sleeping problems, abdominal pain, fatigue, and
depression.
– Bully victims are the most troubled, displaying high levels
of conduct, school, and relationship problems.
Friendship
• Six functions of friendship
– Companionship
– Stimulation
– Physical support
– Ego support
– Social comparison
– Intimacy/affection
• intimacy in friendship — self-disclosure and sharing of
private thoughts
Childhood
• Children use friends as
cognitive and social
resources
• Not all friends and
friendships are equal
– Supportive friendships
advantageous
– Coercive, conflict-ridden
friendships not
• Friends generally similar
— age, sex, ethnicity, and
many other factors
Adolescence
• Need for intimacy
intensifies
• Quality of friendship
more strongly linked to
feelings of well-being
• Important sources of
support
• Mixed-age friendships
• Friends are active
partners in building a
sense of identity
Childhood
• Functions of play
– Health
– Affiliation with peers
– Cognitive development
– Exploration
– Tension release, master anxiety and conflicts
• Play therapy
Parten’s Classic Study of Play
Unoccupied
Solitary
Onlooker
Parallel
Child not engaging in play as commonly
understood; might stand in one spot
Child plays alone, independently of others
Child watches other children play
Child plays separately from others, but in
manner that mimics their play
Play that involves social interaction with
Associative
little or no organization
Play that involves social interaction in
Cooperative
group with sense of organized activity
Types of Play
Infants derive pleasure from exercising
Sensorimotor
their sensorimotor schemes
Practice
Repetition of behavior when new skills
are being learned
Pretense/
Symbolic
Occurs when child transforms physical
environment into symbol
Social
Involves social interactions with peers
Games
Activities engaged in for pleasure;
include rules
Culture
• Behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other
products of a group of people that are
passed on from generation to generation
– Ethnocentrism — tendency to favor one’s own
group over other groups
• Global interdependence is inescapable
reality
– All are citizens of the world
– Better understanding
effective interactions
Individualism and Collectivism
• Individualism — giving priority to personal
goals rather than to group goals; emphasizing
values that serve the self
• Collectivism — emphasizing values that serve
the group by subordinating personal goals to
preserve group integrity, interdependence of
members, and harmonious relationships