Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036) Vol. 1(7) pp. 210-215 August 2011
Available online@ http://www.interesjournals.org/JRPGD
Copyright ©2011 International Research Journals
Full Length Research Paper
The concept of human person as a challenge in
establishing a multi-disciplinary approach in medical
care: The Lebanese example
1
Fadi Abou-Mrad*, MD, PhD and 2Lubna Tarabey, PhD
1
* Head Neurology Division Saint Charles Hospital – Lebanon, Professor of Neurology and Medical Ethics, Lebanese
University and Laboratory of Medical Ethics and Legal Medicine – University Paris Descartes - Paris
2
Professor of Sociology Faculty of Medical Sciences, Lebanese University Campus UL, P.O.Box # 2 Hadath
Accepted 17 June, 2011
The Human Person is a concept that acknowledges and upholds the unity of the human being’s
faculties including the spiritual, psychological and physical aspects. This concept is
acknowledged and accepted by all the different denominations in Lebanon – a diverse multi
sectarian country where religious identity is central to all people. Yet upon examination of the
Lebanese society, a lack of application of this concept is noticed especially within the medical
domain where it is greatly needed and requested. The paper aims at examining this discrepancy
utilizing in-depth interviews and seminars involving a number of professionals. The factors that
were considered to be relevant to the modification of the concept in Lebanon were examined with
a particular emphasis on the medical domain, suggesting venues that would function to
reintroduce the human person and to reestablish the two cardinal values of respect to the Human
Person and solidarity within society. Limitations to the possibility of realizing this aim are
acknowledged along with the importance of exerting effort on behalf of all society to realize the
Human Person.
Keywords: Human person, unity, patient autonomy, liability, medical care, diversity, Lebanese milieu.
INTRODUCTION
The concept Human Person (HP) is a term that refers to
the true essence of a human being – namely the Unity
and Integrity of a human being. Looking at the human
being from the perspective of the HP allows one to
perceive the human individual as one complete whole
person. This is very important particularly within the field
of medicine because approaching the patient as a HP
permits the medical professionals to treat him/her as one
whole – a Unity. Medical care as such should not target
just the patient’s sick body or the ailment but his whole
being – psychological, spiritual, mental, as well as
physical. Real, building upon Plato’s ideas concerning
the value of the HP within the medical domain, considers
that doctors must treat the whole of the patient’s body
and not just the sick part taking into consideration the
*Corresponding author email: fadiaboumrad@gmail.com
soul which also must be healed (Reale Giovanni, 2002).
In other words, for a true healing process to occur the
whole of the human body alongside the soul must be
treated. This is why contemporary medicine is aware of
this problem and promoting a new medical pedagogy to
approach this dilemma (Llorca G, 2003). Therefore, one
cannot separate the sick individual from the HP with all
his/her faculties (Plourde S, 2008).
In Lebanon, the realization of the concept of the HP is
of utmost importance particularly so since all religious
leaders adopt the reality of the concept. Nevertheless,
both socially and within the medical domain, we find a
certain lack in the application of the value as an
understanding of the individual human being as well as of
society at large. Lebanon is a multi sectarian country that
seems to suffer from constant dissent among members of
the same society, yet, all denominations seems to agree
upon the HP as a concept for establishing better human
beings and thus a better society. The realization of the
Abou-Mrad and Tarabey 211
HP within the field of medicine is crucial because it allows
for the re-establishment of the main values that build a
health system. The notion of value has been modified
since its early conception with Plato because of the
deviation in medical practice mainly in the research
domain abusing the human person. This led to the
declaration of Nuremberg and Helsinky (Doucet, Hubert,
2000). The aim of medicine cannot overcome two
cardinal values concerning the person in suffer. The first
value relies on the respect of HP. The second value is
the sense of consciousness of belonging to the chain that
binds the persons of the human community (Llorca G,
2003). It is, therefore, the solidarity induced by the
responsibility, and the foresight that leads inevitably to
adhere to an essential dimension of medical care which
is preventive medicine. A Lebanese survey revealed that
there is a lack of understanding of these values (95%)
within the nursing profession (Abou-Mrad F, Atallah C,
Antoun N, 2010). It is only through acknowledging the
value of the HP that allows for the re-establishment of the
social bond within the medical domain. This bond has
been weakened because of different variables including
the health care support system (including social security,
welfare, and medical insurance), hospitals, physicians,
industries, as well as the application of legislative texts
and the way of sorting out these bioethics laws.
There is an evident loss of the HP within the medical
field and there is a need to shed light on this fact with the
aim of reinstating the value of the HP. One becomes
more aware of the need for such an endeavor when one
knows that in the recent national survey of nurses
mentioned above only 2.5% of the nurses were able to
properly define human dignity while 56% of these totally
rejected the value of vulnerability within their patient
evaluation. This refers to the physically and mentally
fragile persons who need protection such as
handicapped individual and patients suffering from
psychiatric disorders. Moreover, 73% of nurses were not
able to properly distinguish the concepts of ethics,
deontology, and value. They failed to distinguish ethics
as a new multi disciplinary emerging science that reflects
a clinical action. They could not perceive of deontology
as code of behavior and duties relating to the health care
profession. They further, were not able to conceive of
value as the belief or attitude underlying the importance
that society gives to an aim, an object or a principle. They
even were not able to determine what is meant by neither
informed consent nor the repercussions of not
implementing the principle of autonomy (Ibid). The above
clarifies the extent to which the HP has been lost –
eradicated from the whole patient- health profession
portrait. There is an eminent need to reintegrate the
person into its body through raising forgotten concepts
including values, human dignity, ethics, vulnerability and
through reinstating social solidarity which would lead to
the acculturation of medicine that is a corpus exceeding
mere knowledge.
The aim of this paper is to provide some insights into
the importance of incorporating the value of the HP into
the Lebanese society at large and in the medical domain
in particular.
This would function as a platform for a
common ground of action that would aim at restoring
unity to society and value to the medical profession. By
examining the lack in the application of the principle of
the HP, we wish to bring the topic more into medical
discourse and dissiminate the real meaning of forgotten
concepts and vocabulary relating to human dignity that
might restore equilibrium to the human being.
METHOD
A comprehensive literature review on the topic was
carried out. These revealed that there is a limited – lack
of – targeting of the HP from within the medical field in
Lebanon. Lebanese philosophers and clergy dedicated
writing to the topic of the HP adopting a moral-theological
background. However research that tackles the issue
from a socio-medical perspective remains limited. This
fact revealed the need to approach this topic and the
method utilized for this purpose was the use of semistructured interviews with a variety of professionals so as
to acquire the information required. Fifteen professionals,
religious authorities from both Christian and Muslim
religions, physicians, social workers, lawyers, legislators
and members of parliament concerned with the medical
profession and human rights, were interviewed (AbouMrad F, 2008). The interviews aimed at finding out the
professional’s understanding of the HP and the extent to
which the concept is upheld within Lebanon. In addition
to semi structured interviews, five seminars and open
discussion panels were organized in order to broaden the
understanding of the HP.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The conceptual basis
The individual is referred to in Greek philosophy as
atomos which means indivisible. “The soul is not
independent from the body; it lives in this unique body
that is in communication with it” (Touma Jean; 2008).
The Greek philosopher Plato not only dealt with the HP
from the philosophical perspective, but further related it to
the field of medicine in his two famous works Charmides
and Timaeus (For more on contribution look into Reale’s
article According to Plato, the Evils of the Body cannot be
Cured without also Curing the Evils of the Soul in eds.
Taboadas P, Cuddeback K and P, 2002). Further, no
person, or “figure” in Christian theological thought, is like
any other person: it is unique, belongs only to itself and to
God and, therefore, is not submitted to possession by
others “because sanctified persons in the kingdom are
212 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
not opaque to each other, but one is integrated to the
other according to the doctrine of the Saints’ communion”
(Touma Jean; 2008).
In other words, Khodr confirm that opacity which was
the rule of the earthly belief disappears in favor of total
light that enlightens glorified people and illuminates at the
same time the essential cosmos to the world of
enlightenment Ethical values are for the human being an
expression of life that is represented by the human
communion with the other, who in turn is represented by
the divine communion between the persons of the Trinity
(Khodr G, 2008) than. Orthodox (Touma Jean, 2008) and
Catholic (Maalouf J, 2008). churches share the same
teachings regarding the human being. The HP concept is
based on the vision of Trinity, hence Unity, Distinction
and Communion. At this level, Divine persons are
constituted and interlinked: Unity is based on God’s
entity; Distinction guarantees the Person’s independence
whereas Communion cannot be stabilized in the absence
of equality based on the unique and integral nature in this
communion which is itself an expression of life amidst the
communion of different persons (Touma Jean, 2008).
Christian philosophy succeeded in deepening the HP
reality, especially through the current of Personalism that
links dignity to the spiritual reality of the human being
who is a legal entity and not a mere instrument or product
of science. Pope John Paul II in his Encyclical
Evangelium Vitae, states that “human life is sacred…”,
(Encyclicals of John Paul II on the basis of morality,
"Veritatis Splendor" Catholic Documentation, November
7, 1993 n.2080 on the value and inviolability of human
life, "Evangelium Vitae" (D.C. April 16, 1995 nb.2114)
motivating hence physicians and researchers to respect
the human body and not to use and manipulate it at any
time. Systems have then to be at the service and benefit
of the whole person, body and soul.
This concept is not restricted in its application to
Christianity alone but extends to Islam. In Islam, a rule,
the fiqh, states the obligations required in various fields
from all Muslims by the Quranic law or Shari’a which aims
mainly at respecting the HP, preserving life and
safeguarding the human body and its sanctuary. The HP
has a sacred character. The respect of the person’s
physical and mental integrity is based on the principle
that life is a gift from God. As for the body, it has been
given by God to man who is responsible for preserving it
from any harm. The whole human being enjoys,
therefore, absolute inviolability and, it is not allowed,
unless otherwise stipulated by legal authorization, to
harm it, for as stated in the Qur’an “We have created Man
in the most perfect fortune” (95thSu ra, The Fig, 4th
verse).
These declarations seem to be evident postulates;
however it is still necessary to define the way of
translating them within the Lebanese society where
opinions and controversies soon change all concepts into
problems.
The only possible avenue for the overcoming any
problem in agreement with the Lebanese society lies in
the realization of two important notions that deepen our
understanding of the concept of the HP – namely that of
freedom and liability. The HP is not currently an integral
part of the health care profession and society at large in
Lebanon. If a person acknowledges and is aware of the
fact that what makes him/her a HP is directly related to,
and connected with the “other” in society, then that
person is capable of accepting and valuing the other. A
Lebanese individual assumes that he/she is a free agent,
capable of free choice and would agree that the choice
that he/she makes is the result of rational thinking that
‘supposedly’ took into account his/her rights granted to
him/her by the mere faculty of being human. This, in a
twisted sense, denies the very foundation of a HP and
the very basis of that person’s justification for his/her line
of action. What would restore the balance to the basis of
the concept requires that this same individual fully
comprehends that liability is associated with freedom. Of
course a person is free to act in whatever way he/she
deems most suitable to oneself. However, the most
suitable line of action chosen by that individual may not
necessarily reflect the ‘just’ or ‘right’ action. The concept
of liability is being aware that every action/decision
entails certain consequences which cannot be separated
from the action/decision itself and to which the individual
is necessarily held liable to. When an individual becomes
aware that any act of harm entails with it consequences,
would exceed the influence of which the whole society
reflect on the person him/herself, there will be a bigger
chance for a reconsideration of the act of harm. This
liability – i.e. being held responsible and being aware of
one’s liability towards the other, God, society, but mostly
oneself, is part and parcel of man’s freedom and
influences ones conception of him/herself as a HP and at
the same time being aware of the other as also being a
HP. Welkins claims that “the concept of free agency is
the notion of one’s actions being up to one in such a way
that one is, in a basic sense, responsible and
accountable for them” (Nelkin, Dana, 2004).
Taking the above as a basis – confirming that
embedded in the concept of the HP is the freedom to act,
but also responsibility for ones action particularly when it
hinders the realization of the humanity and unity with the
other – why do Lebanese people continue to seem
inconsiderate of that aspect? This inconsideration is
revealed by wars, killing and continuous political turmoil
that appears to be unending?
The problem seems to be in assuming responsibility –
or in reality avoiding doing so. French points out in his
book Responsibility Matters that it seems to be part of
human nature to avoid assuming responsibility: “We
spend a considerable amount of time trying to avoid
responsibility wherever and whenever possible” (French,
Peter Responsibility Matters; 1992).
If Lebanese continue to avoid recommendations and
Abou-Mrad and Tarabey 213
to blame everything on the other, then it becomes very
hard – almost impossible – to aspire towards the
realization of the HP. Thus the concept HP cannot be
fully realized unless people understand the true meaning
of the unique line of ethics – that calls ‘man’ in every
‘man. In Lebanon, all attempts to bridge the gap between
different factions have failed. Political round tables,
religious forums, social reform attempts … have all
proven to be futile in their outcomes. Ethics seems to be
the only gauge for a resolution to “live well” – which is the
real aim of ethics. (Herve C, Thomasma, D and
Weisstub ; 2001)
Factors that led to the modification of the concept of
the HP in Lebanon
Regarding the causes behind the modification of the
concept of the HP in the world and in Lebanon in
particular, the late Lebanese Shiite Imam, M’md Hussein
Fadlallah said that the problem that confronts the human
being in general resides in the movement of his interior
humanism. The human being has always been influenced
by his entourage or his instinctive feelings that would
affect his discipline and interaction in his everyday life.
Whenever the human being opens up to the instinctive
elements, he deviates from the ethics that give constant
balance to his personality; the utmost derivatives are
equally increased by exogenous elements generated by
his environment (M’mh Hussein Fadlallah, Late Uléma
Chiite in Lebanon 2008).
An Arab is a person of history (Ibid) historical events,
especially religious and community related events, affect
his thoughts. His/her thoughts will be then oriented
towards the community, even in the absence of
community related background.
Emphasizing the religion while ignoring its essential
element, the spiritual, is the characteristic of the life in the
East. Let us note that the human being, though
cultivated, collapses in front of problems and becomes
solely a community person (Ibid).
Respect of the values of the human being, to
whatever faith, religion or political position he/she
belongs, seems to be threatened by the fanaticism of
each person who is attached to its own opinion, believes
in it and strives to realize it. The series of murders and
assassinations that aimed to eliminating the other has
moreover initiated the problem of mutual violence, both
on the individual and societal levels. Violence towards the
other leads to a planned violent reaction, hence the other
becomes in Lebanon a community or societal block
involved constantly in violence and confrontations that
deny the human being freedom, value, ability, vivacity
and dialogue (Touma Jean; 2008). The problem that a
Lebanese suffers from and which denies him/her the
possibility of operating within the boundaries of humanity
is the accepting of diversity within the same society.
Diversity is rejected and equated with a different other
who is imagined to be operating within a framework of
‘destruction and annihilation’ of others. If one is not like
me – different – then that person necessarily wants my
destruction. This imagined threat is the cause of
Lebanon’s misery. However, one must be aware that this
threat – though imagined by most – is nothing but the
product of the Lebanese socio-political situation that has
through years of war bred a strong sense of mutual
distrust that needs to be uprooted or at least attended to
if the Lebanese people wish to live up to the ideal of the
HP. There must be a conscious effort on part of all the
different aspects of the Lebanese society and the state
particularly within the scope of education and religion to
work towards the realization of the ideals of HP. It is only
when the Lebanese accept diversity and embrace the
other as adding to one’s cultural experiences, will there
be a hope for the mutual acceptance and realization of
humanity and the value of the HP in him/herself and for
him/herself.
Civil war led for years to the development of a
negative culture as to the human value. Society suffers
from so many ills that the person’s integrity and value,
even a disease, as important as it is, are being trivialized
(Mokheiber G; 2008 ). This leads therefore to the risk of
development of the “elimination” experience among
youth, an experience which is in contradiction with the
integration of the concept of HP in everyday life, under
the pretext of preserving the concept of heritage in an
obvious neglect of the underlying cause behind the
existence of the country: its human being, its value,
respect and dignity.
The Human Person within the Medical Profession in
Lebanon
The civil wars, political and socio-economic instability that
have characterized the Lebanese society and that led to
the marginalization of the HP as a whole and extended
their effects to the medical domain. The medical domain
did not and could not remain immune to the negative
influence of the war and the on-going bigotries that led to
the de-humanizing of the human being. The medical field
itself got tarnished with this dehumanization of the person
whereby the patient was not considered a HP but simply
an individual with a sick body that requires treatment and
once the disease – not the person – is dealt with, cured
or otherwise dealt with the doctor-patient relationship
comes to an end.
The dehumanization or the disregard of the HP within
the Lebanese medical field is not only a result of the
repercussion of war, dissention and divisions within the
Lebanese society in general It is embedded within the
medical approach itself which upheld the scientific
objective method to the disregard of the human. Misler
maintains that physicians have wrongly adopted the
214 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
rational, objectivity and neutrality principles of the
scientific method in their clinical work. This implies a
work that is “guided primarily by objective scientific rules
and orientation and, therefore, is relatively unaffected by
wider social, cultural and political forces. This view is
often phrased normatively: that is medicine ought to be
independent of and protected from these forces because
they would undermine or distort its essential features as
scientific” (Misher Elliot; 2008). The utilization of the
scientific objective method did indeed create a revolution
in the realm of knowledge dividing the fields on
knowledge into particular specialties. A person
specializes in one field, learning the methods of that
particular field, and applying his knowledge within a
particular situation. However, this approach in science –
called the reductionist – has led to the drifting apart of the
different fields of knowledge under the pretence of the
scientific approach, objectivity and specialization. In the
medical field, this has led to dissociation between the
medical domain and the human aspect. A sick person is
looked upon as a patient – a body with a disease – with a
disregard to the person within. Many researchers are
aware of the ‘unhealthy’ repercussions of this approach.
“A concern shared by many authors interested in this
topic is the need to overcome the old reductionist models
of health and to provide an approach that does justice to
the HP as a whole” (Taboada Paulina; 2002). The
Western world was conscious of this problematic
situation and suggested the Quality Decision Model
which seeks to develop the quality of care (Husted GL
and Husted JH; 1989). In Lebanon this situation has not
yet received enough attention.
If doctors and all those concerned with the health
domain in Lebanon acquire such awareness, the patient
would be transformed back into a HP and would get the
necessary treatment that would in reality add value to the
patient’s life and not simply cure a disease.
Doctors can play a particular important role in the
restoration of the HP within the medical profession. They
can do that simply through listening to their patients with
the awareness that the patient is not simply a medical
case – a sick body – but a complete human being.
Charon clarifies the importance of paying particular
attention to the patient as a whole and not just focusing
on medical symptoms. She suggests to physicians to
train themselves to listen to patient’s stories and to
attempt to re-tell the anecdotes told by the patients. This
allows doctors to acquire the perception of the patient
and even empathise with the patient. Listening to patients
and understanding their experiences, limit the possibility
of making diagnosis errors since doctors are able to gain
in depth information regarding the basis of the illness.
This can only be done if the doctor treats the patient as a
person – not just a sick individual. According to Charon,
this is the only way through which a doctor – who has
knowledge – can become a complete doctor who knows
how to heal. “We recognize symptoms, emergencies, and
the need for action. If we complete this with recognition of
the people in the midst of their distress, we become
better complete doctors” (Charon Rita, 1989).
In Lebanon, there is an inherent disregard of the right
of the patient as is revealed by the fact that out of 136
hospitals, 82.5% do not have any sort of ethical
committee even in its deontological dimension that is
usually the generator and protector on informed consent.
Moreover, out of the 17.5% which did have such a
committee, half revealed no solid application in
conducting the informed consent through appropriate
pedagogical method (Abou-Mrad F; 2008). These
statistics, when added up, further reveal the lack of
respect of the principle of autonomy within the medical
and healthcare domain showing the extent to which the
rights of the patients are ignored and the manner in which
doctors’ behavior is still strongly influenced by the
paternalism of Latin countries.
Limitations within the Field of Ethics
Attachment to a religious community which provides
warmth and security did not guarantee peace in the
country. Religions affect “believers and physicians
behavior” (Boustani F; 2008). They are coherent as to a
number of fundamental principles of life but they do not
imply real ethics because they are insufficient to structure
anthropology by themselves” (Ducruet JSJ; 2008).
Fadlallah said, in his analysis of the problem caused
by the lack of integration of the religious factor in daily
life, that man does not dig into the depth of religion and
rather restrict himself to the superficial context. Fadlallah
calls the human being to abide by his ethical and spiritual
religious principles while assuming his responsibility
within a communal society. Religious commitment of the
contemporary person, whether he/she is a Muslim, a
Christian or other, is not therefore deeply rooted in the
consciousness he/she has of his religion and its
interactive cultural aspects but is rather based on his
emotional commitment to inherited rituals.
Islam recognizes these differences and an author, like
Mohammed Arkoun, acknowledges that the Qur’an does
not impose solutions to the human existence practical
problems (ARKOUN Mohammed; 1978). It aims at
inciting man to have a certain vision of himself and of the
world. Moreover, Christians also have on this subject a
similar point of view: The Second Vatican Council
declared: “In respect to the conscious, Christians must,
along with other human beings, seek together the truth
and the adequate solution to the moral problems
encountered in private and social life” (Vatican II,
Gaudium et Spes. nb.16).
CONCLUSION
What constitutes a person is the sum total of his/her
Abou-Mrad and Tarabey 215
experiences that most often exert pressure –
unconsciously sustained – on an individual ‘forcing’ this
person to take one line of action or another. The
Lebanese person is in no sense an exception in this
regard. Yet, what distinguishes the Lebanese citizen is
the long history of war and conflict that had somehow
adopted a religious character and was perceived as a
war of existence by many. This in itself has bred a sense
of mistrust and hatred among citizens of a single nation
who should value and uphold that which unites them
without eliminating that which makes them different –
which continues to be the cultural richness of Lebanon.
The question that seems to pose itself is how one ever
hopes to achieve this. Amin Maalouf (Maalouf A; 2003).
seems to offer a very accurate resolution to this dilemma.
If everyone acknowledges the diversity within his/her own
identity, then it becomes easier for that person to accept
diversity in society and embrace that diversity as a
source of richness and not a threat.
Recognizing the importance of reinstating the value of
the HP within the Lebanese society at large and the
medical domain in particular constitute the right step
towards reinstating balance within the Lebanese society.
This can be accomplished only when the Lebanese
people learn to accept and value diversity and assume
responsibility for their action.
Within the medical
profession, the main responsibility lies on those directly
involved with the curing of patients – doctors and nurses.
The patient must be valued as a person with dignity and
freedom and as such must be listened to.
A common reflection is essential for assuming our
responsibility, whether in the medical field or in the
organization of our social, economic, political and
emotional life. The ethical line is unique and refers to the
human dignity which is defined by the respect of
manhood in each man.
Such a vision cannot but gather believers and nonbelievers because “light is for each human being”, a light
defined by dignity which is “a value that I decided to
acknowledge”. For Jean Bernard, it is the freedom of the
moral subject associated with the quality given to the
human body. It is the obligation of all living persons who
listen to their senses. Governors and citizens together
with a multidisciplinary academic contribution are
requested to take common action towards building an
enlightened society that will confirm fraternity allowing
Lebanese citizens to “lead a good life”.
REFERENCES
Abou-Mrad F (2008). Clinical trials in Lebanon, Thesis defended
November, p. 249-308, University Paris Descartes. http :
//www.ethique.inserm.fr//
Abou-Mrad F (2008). Clinical trials in Lebanon, Thesis defended
November, p. 140, University Paris Descartes. http :
//www.ethique.inserm.fr//
Abou-Mrad F, Atallah C,..........au Liban. Thérapie 2010; 65(6), p.p 551565
Abou-Mrad F, Atallah C, Antoun N (2010). Qualité éthique de l’exercice
de la profession d’infirmier au Liban. Thérapie 2010; 65(6), p.p 551565
ARKOUN Mohammed (1978). Islam, yesterday and tomorrow Buchet:
Chastel., p.141
Boustani F (2008). General Secretary of CCNLE, interviewed in Arabic
on August 28, 2010 In. In. Abou-Mrad F., Clinical trials in Lebanon,
Thesis defended November, P.265-269, University Paris Descartes.
http : //www.ethique.inserm.fr//
Charon, Rita “To Listen, To Recognize” p.p. 529 – 536 in Phil Brown ed.
Perspectives in Medical Sociology, (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing
Company,)
Doucet, Hubert (2000). L’ethique de la recherché, les presses de
l’Universite de Montreal,
Ducruet JSJ (2008). late Rector of Saint Joseph University in Beirut,
interviewed in French on September 1,
Encyclicals of John Paul II on the basis of morality, "Veritatis Splendor"
Catholic Documentation, November 7, 1993 n.2080 on the value
and inviolability of human life, "Evangelium Vitae" (D.C. April 16,
1995 nb.2114).
For more on Plato’s contribution look into Reale’s article According to
Plato, the Evils of the Body an not be Cured without also Curing the
Evils of the Soul in eds. Taboadas P, Cuddeback K and P (2002).
Donohue-White Person, Society and Value: Towards a
PersonalistConcept of Health, , Netherlands: Kluwer Academic
Publishers,
French, Peter Responsibility Matters, (Kansas: University Press of
Kansas, 1992), 1
Herve C , Thomasma, D and Weisstub, D Visions ethiques de la
Personne, Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001: 30 – 36
Husted GL and Husted JH (1989). Ethical Decision Making in Nursing,
Saint Louise, USA: Springer, 1991
Khodr G (2008). Orthodox Bishop of Mount Lebanon, interviewed in
Arabic on September 6, 2008, In. Abou-Mrad F., Clinical trials in
Lebanon, Thesis defended November, P. 249-252, University Paris
Descartes. http : //www.ethique.inserm.fr//
Llorca G (2003). Guide Pratique de la Decision Medical, Paris: Editions
Medi-Line, p.p.12 - 31
M’mh Hussein Fadllalah, Late Uléma Chiite in Lebanon (2008)
Interviewed in Arabic on September 3, 2008, In. Abou-Mrad F.,
Clinical trials in Lebanon, Thesis defended November, p. 253-257,
University Paris Descartes. http : //www.ethique.inserm.fr//
Maalouf A (2003). In the Name of Identity: violence and the need to
belong, New York: Penguin Books,
Maalouf J (2008). The human person in the Catholic Church p.p.49-51
in ed. Hervé Christian Compared Visions of Bioethics Paris:
L'Harmattan;
Misher Elliot (2008) “Critical Perspectives on the Biomedical Model” p.p.
153 – 166 in Phil Brown ed. Perspectives in Medical Sociology, ,
(Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1989),
Mokheiber G, Parliament Commission on Human Rights, Interviewed in
French on August 30, 2008
Nelkin, Dana (2004). “The sense of Freedom” p.p. 105 – 134 in
Campbell, J, et al,eds. Freedom and Determinism,(Cambridge:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,), 114
Plourde S (2008). “La notion de Perssone: une clef qui ouvre la
dimension ethique des possibilities techno-scientifique” p.p. 107 –
255 in ed. Herve Christian Compared Visions of Bioethics Paris:
L'Harmattan;
Reale Giovanni (2002). “According to Plato, the Evils of the Body
Cannot be Cured without also Curing the Evils of the Soul”, p.p. 19
–31 in eds. P. Taboadas, K. Cuddeback & P. Donohue-White
Person, Society and Value: Towards a Personalist Concept of
Health, , Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Taboada Paulina (2002) “The General Systems Theory: An Adequate
Framework for a Personalist Concept of Health?” in eds. P.
Taboadas, K. Cuddeback & P. Donohue-White Person, Society and
Value: Towards a Personalist Concept of Health, , (Netherlands:
Kluwer Academic Publishers,), 33 Su ra, 95th The Fig, 4th verse
Touma Jean (2008). The human persona and the Orthodox Tradition
p.p.53-56. in ed. Herve Christian Compared Visions of Bioethics
Paris: L'Harmattan; Vatican II, Gaudium et Spes. nb.16s