Water relations in highly calcareous very gravelly soils
by Daniel Lyle McLean
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE i
n Soil Science
Montana State University
© Copyright by Daniel Lyle McLean (1978)
Abstract:
This study was undertaken because of the many irrigated acres of highly calcareous very gravelly soils
in Western Montana and the uncertainties of permeabilities and available water capacities associated
with them. Infiltration rates were recorded on large 9.3 square meter (100 square foot) plots in July
1975. Soil water was determined gravimetrically 2.5, 5, 9, and 16 days after saturation.
The substratum of these soils contains 80 percent (by weight) rock fragments so samples for moisture
were taken by excavation with a backhoe. Bulk density for soil horizons containing a large amount of
rock fragments was determined by a sand-fill excavation method.
Saturated hydraulic conductivity was 2.5 to 3.5 centimeters per hour. The "field moisture capacity"
available for plant use was 13.5 centimeters for the Gravel soil and 19.3 centimeters for the
Musselshell soil. Although the surface was covered to prevent evapotranspir-ation, these very gravelly
soils continued to lose significant amounts of gravitational water for 16 days after saturation. If plants
were allowed to use the free water during this period, very little gravitational water may have been lost
after the first three days.
The data in this study can be used to properly design irrigation systems and determine irrigation
frequencies for the Crave] and Musselshell soils. It can also be extrapolated to other highly calcareous
very gravelly soils with similar characteristics.
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WATER RELATIONS IN HIGHLY CALCAREOUS VERY GRAVELLY SOILS
'
by
• DANIEL LYLE MG LEAN
A t h e s i s submi t t ed in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
o f t he r e qu i r e me nt s f o r the degree
of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Soi l
Sci ence
Appr oved:
AG.Y jt t ju J
C h a i r p e r s o n , ^ E x a mi n i n g Committee
Heady' Maj or 4' Department
Graduate Oean
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
May-,
1978
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I
would l i k e
commi ttee members:.
Dr.
Joseph C a p r i o ,
Dr.
Ger al d A.
to express my a p p r e c i a t i o n
Dr.
Dr.
Nielsen
Murry Kl ages,
A.
John Montague,
Hayden Ferguson and e s p e c i a l l y
(Chairperson)
couragement and p a t i e n c e . •
f o r . his
help,
enr.
'
Thank you to the LI. S. D. A.
f o r allowing educational
Dr.
to jny gr aduat e
Soil
Con s e r v a t i on S e r v i c e
l e a v e and t e c h n i c a l
assistance.
Thank you to t he Jumping Horse Ranch o f E n n i s , Montana
f o r a l l o w i n g t he use of t h e i r
p r o p e r t y f o r the r esear ch
plots.
Also,
Station,
thank you to the Montana A g r i c u l t u r e
Experi ment
Bozeman, Montana f o r the generous use o f t h e i r
equi pment.
I
a p p r e c i a t e t he suppor t and the encouragement of
my f a m i l y ,
friends,
and r e l a t i v e s
a s s i s t a n c e o f my w i f e .
and e s p e c i a l l y the t y p i n g
TABLE OF CONTENTS
. page
TITLE PAGE ...............................................................................................
V I T A ................................................................................................
i
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................
iii
TABLE OF C O N T E N T S ...............................................................
iv
LIST OF T A B L E S ......................................................
vi
LIST OF F I G U R E S ................................................................................ ■ v i i
ABSTRACT..........................................................................................' . - .
vi i i
INTRODUCTION .............................................................
I
LITERATURE REVIEW
............................................................................
4
PROCEDURES ...............................................................................................
8
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
..................................................................
Saturated Hydraulic
Total
Soi l
Conductivity
18
............................
18
W a t e r .............................................................................22
C O N C L U S I O N S .......................
RECOMMENDATIONS
APPENDICES
I
.
.
30
.
. ' ...........................................................
.
............................
31
32
Field Saturated Hydraulic
Conductivity . . .
-
33
Ia
Crave!
pond wa t e r
i n t a k e data . . . .
34
lb
Crave!
r i n g wat er
i n t a k e data . . . .
35
Ic
Cravel
in filtration
Id
Crave!
total
Ie
Mu s s e l s h e l l
curves
........................
wa t e r i n t a k e curves
pond w a t e r i n t a k e dat a
. . .
.
.
36
37
38
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Continued
page
If
Mu s s e l s h e l l
20" r i n g wat er i n t a k e d a t a .
. 39
Ig
Mu s s e l s h e l l
12" r i n g wat er i n t a k e d a t a .
. 40
Ih
Mu s s e l s h e l l
infiltration
Ii
Mu s s e l s h e l l
total
2
Basic S o i l - W a t e r
3
Laboratory Saturated
BIBLIOGRAPHY
wa t e r
curves
.
.
.
.
. 41
i n t a k e curves
.
. 42
D a t a ............................................... 1
Hydraulic Conductivity
. 43
.
. '49
50
Vl
LIST OF TABLES
number
1
page
Mo r p hol ogi c a l
Crave!
2
Characteristics
gravelly
Mo r p hol ogi c a l
Mussel she! I
of
-
l o a m ............................ ....
Characteristics
of
I o a m ............................................... . 2 0
19
vi i
LIST OF FIGURES
number
page
1 .
L o c a t i o n map o f r ese ar ch
2
Landscape o f s i t e
3
B u f f e r pond c o n s t r u c t i o n ................... ....
4
Pond c o n t a i n i n g
5
Water l e v e l
6
Soil
7
Research p l o t sample desi gn
sites
. . . . . .
9
l o c a t i o n s ..................................... po
in filtration
.
.
. 11
r i n g ....................... 12
measurement procedure
wa t e r sample c o l l e c t i o n
.
...................
14
...................
15
........................
. 17
viii
ABSTRACT
Thi s st udy was undert aken because o f the many i r r i ­
gated acres o f h i g h l y c a l c a r e o u s very g r a v e l l y s o i l s in
Western Montana and the u n c e r t a i n t i e s of p e r m e a b i l i t i e s
and a v a i l a b l e wa t e r c a p a c i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them.
In­
f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s were recorded on l a r g e 9 . 3 square meter
(100 square f o o t ) p l o t s in J u l y 1975.
Soi l wa t e r was de­
t er mi ned g r a v i m e t r i c a l I y 2 . 5 , 5, 9, and 16 days a f t e r
saturation.
The subst r at um of these s o i l s c o n t a i n s 80 pe r c e nt (by
w e i g h t ) rock fr agment s so samples f o r mo i s t u r e were taken
by e x c a v a t i o n w i t h a backhoe.
Bulk d e n s i t y f o r s o i l
ho r i z ons c o n t a i n i n g a l a r g e amount of rock fr agment s was
det er mi ned by a s a n d - f i l l e x c a v a t i o n method.
S a t u r a t e d h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y was 2 . 5 to 3 . 5
c e n t i m e t e r s per h o u r .
The " f i e l d mo i s t u r e c a p a c i t y "
a v a i l a b l e f o r p l a n t use was 1 3 . 5 c e n t i m e t e r s f o r the
Gravel s o i l and 1 9 . 3 c e n t i m e t e r s f o r the Mu s s e l s h e l l s o i l .
Although the s u r f a c e was covered to pr e v e nt e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n , t hese ver y g r a v e l l y s o i l s cont i nue d to l ose s i g n i f ­
i c a n t amounts o f g r a v i t a t i o n a l wa t e r f o r 16 days a f t e r
saturation.
I f p l a n t s were a l l owed to use the f r e e wat er
du r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , ver y l i t t l e g r a v i t a t i o n a l wa t e r may
have been l o s t a f t e r the f i r s t t h r e e days.
The data i n t h i s study can be used to p r o p e r l y de­
sign i r r i g a t i o n systems and de t er mi ne i r r i g a t i o n f r e ­
quenci es f o r the Crave] and Mu s s e l s h e l l s o i l s .
I t can
al so be e x t r a p o l a t e d to o t h e r h i g h l y c a l c a r e o u s very
g r a v e l l y s o i l s wi t h s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
INTRODUCTION
A high ca l ci um ca r b ona t e c o n t e n t and an abundance of
rock f r agment s are two o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
i n the dry i n t e r m o u n t a i n v a l l e y s
o f Madison County,
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t hese c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
lations
ar e not f u l l y
as t h e r e
areas of Western Montana.
is
irrigation
Therefore,
de s i g n .
p e r m e a b i l i t y or i n t a k e
this
wat er r e ­
irrigation
wat er
in most o f the mountainous
common r equest s was an o n - s i t e
sprinkler
on s o i l
Montana.
recognized.
There i s an abundance o f high q u a l i t y
in Madison County,
of s o i l s
soil
one of the most
investigation
for
A v a i l a b l e wa t e r c a p a c i t y and
r a t e are of pr i mar y i mport ance in
type of i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
I mme di a t e l y a c o n t r o v e r s y was e v i d e n t
pretation
orthids,
o f S. C. S . t e c h n i c a l
loamy-skeletal,
in the i n t e r -
guides f o r B o r o l l i c
carbonatic
p r e t a t i o n was t h a t very g r a v e l l y
soils.
soils
Calci-
One i n t e r ­
commonly have moder­
a t e to r a p i d p e r m e a b i l i t y and ca l ci um car bona t e does not
expand when w e t ,
permeability.
so i t
ca r bonat es p r e c i p i t a t e
leaving
l ess
should have l i t t l e
The c o n t r a d i c t o r y
in s o i l
effect
on the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was t h a t
po r e s,
■
pl uggi ng them and
pore space f o r movement of w a t e r ,
p e r m e a b i l i t y should be slow or very slow.
thus the
2
The p e r c e n t c l a y in a s o i l
indicator
ever,
i s commonly used as an
to ap pr oxi mat e a v a i l a b l e wa t e r c a p a c i t y .
this
is
not p o s s i b l e wi t h
hi ghl y calcareous
How­
soils
be­
cause ca r bonat es o f c l a y s i z e ar e not consi der ed to be c l a y
and are t r e a t e d as s i l t
These c o n f l i c t s
t hese s o i l s
for
some l a b o r a t o r y
shell
(Soil
Survey S t a f f
1975).
and the q u e s t i o n a b l e p o t e n t i a l
irrigation
aroused
my i n t e r e s t ,
r e se ar ch on the c a l c i c
of
so I did
ho r i z on o f a Mussel ­
loam w i t h about 65 p e r c e n t c a r b o n a t e s .
I det er mi ned
s a t u r a t e d h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y on the l es s than 2 m i l l i ­
meter d i s t u r b e d s o i l ,
particle
bul k d e n s i t y on u n d i s t u r b e d peds and
size analy sis.
replications
but a f t e r
The i n i t i a l
in the l ab was about 1 . 0 c e n t i m e t e r per h o u r ,
f o u r days,
t hey began to s t a b i l i z e
c e n t i m e t e r s per hour (Appendix 3 ) .
observations
filtration
Gile
horizons.
veal ed a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t
c o n t e n t and i n f i l t r a t i o n
increased l i n e a r l y ,
Statistical
correlation
rate.
a t about 0 . 5
(1961 ) made f i e l d
and measurements o f r e s i s t a n c e
in c a l c i c
ponentially.
r a t e of f l o w on t h r e e
to wa t e r i n ­
analysis
re­
between car bonat e
As the ca r b ona t e c ont e nt
the i n f i l t r a t i o n
r a t e decreased e x ­
The slow or mo d e r a t e l y slow p e r m e a b i l i t y o f
t he d i s t u r b e d sample in the l ab Was in c o n f l i c t wi t h f i e l d
trials,
so a d d i t i o n a l
r ese ar ch was needed.
3
The s o l u t i o n s
o f many problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ' s o i l -
wa t e r f l o w depends upon knowledge of the h y d r a u l i c
ductivity.
for
con­
Of the numerous methods which have been proposed
the measurement o f h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , -Klute ( 1972)
states
the in- s i t u methods must be r egar ded as p r e f e r a b l e ,
because t hey are more d i r e c t l y
o f the f i e l d
to the s o l u t i o n
problems.
Because o f t he d i f f i c u l t y
little
applicable
o f worki ng wi t h
t hese s o i l s ,
or no work had been done w i t h r egard to r a t e
of
p e r m e a b i l i t y or w a t e r h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y o f h i g h l y ca l c a r e ous
very g r a v e l l y
and seal
soils.
In filtration
in very g r a v e l l y
soils.
r i n g s are hard to i n s t a l l
Likewise,
methods o f m o n i t o r i n g
soil
i mpo s s i b l e to i n s t a l l
in very g r a v e l l y
The purpose of t h i s
the common
wa t e r are very d i f f i c u l t
if
not
soils.
study was to p r o v i d e some bench­
mark dat a on the p e r m e a b i l i t y and a v a i l a b l e wa t e r c a p a c i t y
o f two h i g h l y ca l c a r e o u s
tion
very g r a v e l l y
soils.
This
could be expanded to some 2 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 acres
Montana al one
( Southard 1 969 ) .
informa­
in Western
Many of the s o i l s
i n the
west er n Uni t ed St at es' c o n t a i n hor i z ons of c a l ci u m carbonat e
accumulation,
therefore,
it
is
could be u s e f u l l y e x t r a p o l a t e d
possible th is
information
to o t h e r a r e a s .
LITERATURE REVIEW
The boundary o f s o i l s
accumul at i on
containing
in the Uni t ed S t a t e s
. '
hor i z ons o f car bona t e
is a t r a n s e c t which runs
a p p r o x i m a t e l y t hrough the mi ddl e of Texas and nor t h along
t he e a s t e r n
border o f North and South D a k o t a .
treme n o r t h e r n Uni t ed S t a t e s ,
w i t h about 50 c e n t i m e t e r s
itation
and 5°C ( 4 2 ° F )
i n sout her n Texas i t
this.transect
In the ex­
corresponds
(20 i n c h e s ) mean annual
mean annual
temperature,
precip­
whereas,
corresponds w i t h about 60 c e n t i m e t e r s
I
(24 i n c h e s ) mean annual
annual
temperature.
appears
precipitation
Thi s
climatic
(72°F)
relationship
mean
al so
in mountai ns and i n t e r m o u n t a i n v a l l e y s where
marked d i f f e r e n c e s
in c l i m a t e s
ever y m o u n t a i n - b a s i n t r a n s e c t
t i v e l y warm-dry c l i m a t e
conditions,
therefore,
and s o i l
is
soils
Lane e t a l .
1966;
by a r e l a ­
Under a p p r o p r i a t e
c o n t a i n CaCOg . ( B i r k l a nd,
and Le e t e t a l . 1 9 6 5 ) .
time j u s t
as the concepts of s o i l
revised.
Calcification,
has been r e v i s e d wi t h
classification
as d e f i n e d
by Kel l ogg
term f o r those processes of s o i l
i n which t he s u r f a c e
Ne a r l y
on the lower sl opes o f the
The concept of c a l c i f i c a t i o n
was a gener al
occur .
characterized
in the b a s i n s .
mountai ns and i n t he basins w i l l
1974;
and 22°C
soil
have been
in 1941,
f o r ma t i o n
was kept s u p p l i e d by the p l a n t s
w i t h enough ca l ci um to p r e v e n t the s o i l
from becoming
'i
5
a c i d and t he c o l l o i d s
from l e a c h i n g out
(Jenny, 1 9 4 1 ) .
more r e c e h t concept d e f i n e s c a l c i f i c a t i o n
A
as processes
i n c l u d i n g a c cumul at i o n of c a l ci u m car bona t e i n Cca and
possibly
o t h e r hor i z ons o f the s o i l
(Buol
et a l .
1973).
There are o t h e r common ca r b ona t e mi n e r a l s which occur
in combi nat i on w i t h cal ci um ca r b ona t e in s o i l s ,
at es o f ca l ci um ar e by f a r
nature
but ca r bon­
the most abundant car bona t es in
( Kr auskopf 1 9 6 7 ) .
Soils
in semi a r i d
and a r i d
r e gi o ns commonly have a
zone or ho r i z on o f secondary ca l ci um c a r bona t e a c c u mu l a t i o n .
Many o f t hese s o i l s
form pr omi nent l a y e r s
morphology i s det er mi ned by the
the c l i m a t e
enough,
i n which the"
i mpregnated c a r b o n a t e s .
is dry enough or t he s u r f a c e e r o s i o n
If
intense
t hese ho r i z ons may extend to the s u r f a c e as t hey do
i p some, areas of Ma d i s o n - Co u n t y .
The o r i g i n
of car bona t e
bicarbonate e q u i l i b r i a
hor i z ons
involves
carbonate-
accor di ng to t he f o l l o w i n g
reaction:
CO2 + H2O
v
CaCQ3 + H^CO3----- x Ca++ + 2HC03~
Any process t h a t
increases
t he amount of CO2 a v a i l a b l e to
Sr
the s o l u t i o n makes more CaCO3 d i s s o l v e ;
a n y t h i n g t h a t de­
cr eases the amount of CO2 causes CaCO3 to p r e c i p i t a t e .
low pH, where most d i s s o l v e d car bona t es e x i s t
f or wa r d r e a c t i o n
action
is
favored.
causes p r e c i p i t a t i o n
At
as H2CO3 , the
At high pH the r e v e r s e r e ­
of CaCO3 .
Dissolution
is al so
f a v o r e d by i n c r e a s i n g the amount of wat er moving t hrough
the s o i l ;
centration
however , p r e c i p i t a t i o n
is
t akes pl ace when ion con­
i n c r e a s e d to the p o i n t of s a t u r a t i o n .
a t u r e al so a f f e c t s
CaCO3 e q u i l i b r i a .
Temper
The s o l u b i l i t y
of
CaCO3 in pure wa t e r decr eases as the t e mp e r a t u r e r i s e s .
Thi s
i s o p p o s i t e to the b e h a v i o r o f most s a l t s where the
gener al
r e s u l t o f i n c r e a s i n g t e mp e r a t u r e i s to gi ve high
solubilities.
In a d d i t i o n
to t h i s
o f CaCO3 in wa t e r decreases at
COg i s
e f f e c t , t he s o l u b i l i t y
h i g h e r t e mp e r a t u r e s
l ess s o l u b l e i n hot wat er than
t hough,
both f a c t o r s
ca r bonat es
ar e i n v o l v e d ,
because
in cold w a t e r .
the s o l u b i l i t y
is g e n e r a l l y much more i n f l u e n c e d
Al­
of
by t he change
in s o l u b i l i t y o f COg than by the t e mp e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t of
the s o l u b i l i t y
o f CaCO3 , ( B i r k e l a n d
The above c o n d i t i o n s
all
occur
c i urn ca r b ona t e has accumul at ed.
plant
roots,
1 974 and Krauskopf 1 967)
in s o i l s
Carbon d i o x i d e produced by
mi cr oor gani sm r e s p i r a t i o n ,
decomposi t i on r e s u l t
i n which c a l - ,
i n COg p a r t i a l
and o r g a n i c m a t t e r
pr essur es
in s oi l
air
7
o f 10 to more than 100 ti mes t h a t
(Birkeland
in the atmosphere
1974 and Buckman e t a l .
1969).
Thi s abundance
o f COg decreases the pH which causes an i n c r e a s e
solubility
ditions
o f CaCOg.
Thus,
for dissolution
one would expect optimum con­
o f CaCOg in the A hor i z on and t he
amount o f wa t e r l e a c h i n g
t hrough t he s o i l
i s al so much g r e a t e r than a t dept h.
occur as CaCOg i s
ing COg p a r t i a l
maj or b i o l o g i c a l
in the
precipitated
near the s u r f a c e
Calcification
could
by a combi nat i on o f decreas
pr es sur e below the zone of r o o t i n g and
activity,
and the p r o g r e s s i v e
increase
c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h depth in Ca++ and HCOg" in the s o i l
solution
as wa t e r i s
lost
by e v a p o t - r a n s p i r a t i o n .
in
PROCEDURES
S i t e s were s e l e c t e d on the Jack Creek Bench e a s t of
E nni s,
Montana
the two s o i l s
pl e x in t h i s
(Figure
I).
' These s i t e s were chosen because
of major i n t e r e s t
a r e a , and pr evi ous
done on the c a l c i c
were in n a t i v e
in t h i s
study occur in com­
laboratory
tests
had been
ho r i z on o f one of these s o i l s :
range and on n e a r l y l e v e l
Sites
topography
(Figure 2).
A 3 meter square
(10 f o o t s q u a r e ) pond was c o n s t r u c t e d
out of 2 . 5 c e n t i m e t e r
by 25 c e n t i m e t e r
(I
inch by 10 i nch)
boards so the s u r f a c e area
i n s i d e the pond was 9 . 3 square
meters
Large ponds were used to b e t t e r
(100 square f e e t ) .
r e p r e s e n t the common v a r i a t i o n s
face.
t h a t occur in any s o i l
A narrow t r e n c h about 5 c e n t i m e t e r s
was dug in a 3 met er
(10 f o o t )
square.
(2 i nche s)
sur­
deep
The boards were
pl aced on edge in the t r e n c h , the ends seal ed w i t h c a u l k i n g
compound and n a i l e d s e c u r e l y
(Figure
3).
Wooden stakes
were d r i v e n around the o u t s i d e o f the pond f o r suppor t and
the l oose s o i l
that
had been t aken from the t r e n c h was
tamped around t he edges t o p r e v e n t wa t e r l ea ks
The 3 met er
(10 f o o t )
ponds and i n f i l t r a t i o n
(Figure 4 ) .
the r i n g s
Periodic
(Figure 3).
square ponds were used as b u f f e r
r i n g s were pl aced i n s i d e
them
r eadi ngs o f the wat er l e v e l
i n both
and the ponds were r ecor ded using equipment and
O
5
O
___________ 5
10 MILES
SCALE I SOOiOOO
S
^
R 2 W
R 3 W
R I W
J e ffe rs o n Island
LOCATION MAP
R I F.
/ WILL
R 3 E
RHEAD
I/
O
N
A
-IGAL L A T I N
F OR E
L
AT
E nm s1
I O
NAL
BEAVE
Fi gur e I - Locat i on of r esear ch p l o t s on the Jumping
Horse Ranch east of Enni s, Mont ana.
The s i t e l o c a t i o n
of the Gravel s o i l is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 402 meters south
and 579 meters e a s t o f the nor t hwe st cor ner o f s e c t i o n
30,155, RlE.
The s i t e l o c a t i o n o f the Mu s s e l s h e l l s o i l
is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 548 meters nort h and 6 TO meters west
of the s o u t h e a s t c o r n e r of s e c t i o n 30, T5S, R l E .
10
Fi gur e 2 - S i t e l o c a t i o n on Jack Creek Bench e a s t of Enni s,
Mont ana, in n a t i v e range on n e a r l y l e v e l t opogr aphy.
11
Fi gur e 3 - Large b u f f e r ponds c o n s t r u c t e d o f wood and
seal ed to p r e v e n t l e a k a ge .
I2
Fi gur e 4 - Large b u f f e r
ring.
pond c o n t a i n i n g
infiltration
pr ocedures o f Hai se e t a l .
To d u p l i c a t e q u a l i t y
(1956)
(Figure 5).
of wa t e r a v a i l a b l e
for
wa t e r was t aken from a nearby
irrigation
to the s i t e w i t h a 3 , 7 8 4 l i t e r
(1,000 gallon)
d i t c h and hauled
A head o f wa t e r was m a i n t a i n e d on the p l o t s
hours and 30 c e n t i m e t e r s
15 i n c h e s )
total
o f heavy (4 m i l )
wa t e r
wa t e r t a n k .
f o r 8 to 1.2
(12 inches to
i n t o the s o i l .
A sheet
bl a c k p l a s t i c was pl aced over each p l o t
to p r e v e n t wa t e r loss
After
to 38 c e n t i m e t e r s
infiltrated
irrigation,
by e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n .
t h r e e days,
one co r n er o f each p l o t was e x ­
cavat ed wi t h a backhoe and s o i l
samples put in small
cans and seal ed f o r wa t e r c o n t e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
sampled were 0 - 1 Ocrn, 2 0 - 35 cm, 35-55cm,
metal
Depths
55 - 80 cm, 8 0 - 1 10cm,
11 0-141 cm, and 1 4 1 - 1 52cm ( F i g u r e 6 ) .
Samples were taken and the s o i l
r e p l a c e d i n the p i t as
r a p i d l y as p o s s i b l e to p r e v e n t wa t e r loss
by e v a p o r a t i o n .
The samples were t aken i m me d i a t e l y back to E n n i s , wei ghed,
oven d r i e d a t 105° 0 f o r
wa t e r l o s s .
The d r i e d
24 hour s,
and rewei ghed to det er mi ne
samples were dry si eved t o remove
the g r e a t e r than 2 m i l l i m e t e r
fraction.
Thi s coarse f r a c ­
t i o n was weighed and p e r c e n t of sample was c a l c u l a t e d .
Additional
5,
9,
samples were c o l l e c t e d in the same manner
■
and 16 days a f t e r the i n i t i a l s a t u r a t i o n in the r e -
14
Fi gur e 5 - Hook gage used to measure wat er l e v e l .
I 5
Fi gur e 6 - C o l l e c t i o n
pits.
of s o i l
wat er
samples from excavat ed
.16
mai ni ng co r n er s of the p l o t s
Profile
nomencl at ure
(Figure 7 )V
d e s c r i p t i o n s were pr epar ed using st andar d
(Soil
Survey S t a f f
1951).
Large samples were
t aken from hor i z ons c o n t a i n i n g a p p r e c i a b l e coarse f r a g ­
ments,
to d e t e r mi n e amount of coar se f ragments and bulk
density.
Volume of excavat ed s o i l
was det er mi ned by the
sand-fill
method of Blake
Briefly
o f e x c a v a t i n g about I
in a cup-shaped h o l e .
w i t h a pr e d e t e r mi ne d
inserted
into
k i l ogr a m o f s o i l
settled
density.
to fu_ll
this
consisted
and coar se fragments
The hol e was f i l l e d
the sand s e v e r a l
The sand was l e v e l e d
corded.
(1965).
wi t h
A knife
dry sand
bl ade was
ti mes to a l l o w s e t t l i n g .
and the volume of sand r e ­
Bulk samples were put i n bags and d r i e d to
de t er mi ne dry w e i g h t .
The bul k samples were then dry
si eved to de t e r mi ne the g r e a t e r than .2 m i l l i m e t e r
fraction.
coarse
3.0 m
(10 f t ) —
Sample 2
E -t->
MO
•O
CO
I
—
Sample 4
Sample 3
Si/
Fi gur e 7 - Sample p a t t e r n w i t h i n each p l o t .
Sample I was
c o l l e c t e d 2 . 5 days a f t e r s a t u r a t i o n .
Sample 2 was c o l l e c t e d
5 days a f t e r s a t u r a t i o n .
Sample 3 was c o l l e c t e d 9 days
after saturation.
Sample 4 was c o l l e c t e d 16 days a f t e r
s a t u r a t i on,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Tabl es
istics
I and 2 g i v e the main mor phol ogi cal
of the s o i l s
a t the two s i t e s .
character­
These s o i l s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the two major- h i g h l y c a l c a r e o u s
are
soils
in Madison County.
Saturated Hydraulic
Conductivity
Although the i n i t i a l
and v a r i a b l e ,
cont i nuous
intake
r i n g du r i ng the f i r s t
a f t e r t h r e e hours of
in i t
as w e l l .
had i n t a k e r a t e s
of 3 . 3 c e n t i m e t e r s
stabilized
a t about 2 . 5 c e n t i m e t e r s
in the r i n g
Each p r o f i l e
Soil
viously,
received
( 1 . 3 0 i n che s)
i n the Cravel
(1.0
inches)
whereas the pond was near 3 . 5 c e n t i m e t e r s
1975.
A f t e r ap pr ox ­
h o u r s , both r i n g s and the pond on the Mussel ­
The i n t a k e r a t e
more t o t a l
plot
in the o p p o s i t e end o f the
per h o u r .
hour.
in the
h a l f - h o u r on the Mu s s e l s h e l l
pond and r eco r d i n t a k e r a t e s
plot
rapid .
flow rates'measured
prompted us to put an ot h er r i n g
shell
r a t e s were q u i t e
t hey s t a b i l i z e d wel l
f l o w . . The e r r a t i c
imately f i v e
(Appendix T )
(1.40
30 c e n t i m e t e r s
plot
per h o u r ,
i n che s)
per
(12 i n c h e s ) . o r
w a t e r over an 8 to 12 hour pe r i od on Ju l y 14,
wa t e r samples were t a k e n , as d e s c r i b e d p r e ­
on J u l y 17,
19,
23,
and 30,
1 975,
an a d d i t i o n a l
plot,
where no wa t e r had been added,
1975.
On J u l y 31,
,
p i t was excavat ed near the Mussel s h e l l
and s o i l
samples f o r
19
Ta bl e I - Mo r p hol ogi c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s o i l s .
Typical
Pedon o f Crave! G r a v e l l y Loam.
Tentative C l a s s i f i c a t i o n :
Borollic C alc io r th id s , loamy-skeletal, carbonatic.
Al
O- 1 O c m - - L i g h t brownish gray ( I OYR 6 / 2 ) g r a v e l l y
loam, dark g r a y i s h brown ( I OYR 4 / 2 ) m o i s t ; weak
f i n e gr an ul a r - s t r u c t u r e ; s o f t , ver y f r i a b l e ,
s l i g h t l y s t i c k y , n o n p l a s t i c ; many f i n e root s
t hr oughout h o r i z o n ; many f i n e i r r e g u l a r and tub­
u l a r por es; cal ci um ca r b ona t e cutans on lower
s u r f a c e s o f f r a g m e n t s ; 20 p e r c e n t g r a v e l ;
s l i g h t l y e f f e r v e s c e n t ; mode r a t e l y a l k a l i n e
pH 8 . 0 ; c l e a r wavy boundary.
( 8 - 1 5 cm t h i c k )
Clca
10 - 3 6 C m - - L i g h t gray ( I OYR 7 / 2 ) g r a v e l l y sandy loam;
l i g h t brownish gray ( I OYR 6 / 2 ) mo i s t ; weak
coarsfe subangul ar bl ocky s t r u c t u r e ; ■ s o f t , very
f r i a b l e , n o n s t i c k y , n o n p l a s t i c ; common f i n e •
r oot s t hr oughout h o r i z o n ; common f i n e v e s i c u l a r
and t u b u l a r por es; ca l ci um ca r b ona t e cutans on
l ower s u r f a c e s o f f r a g m e n t s ; 20 p e r c e n t g r a v e l ;
v i o l e n t l y e f f e r v e s c e n t ; mo d e r a t e l y a l k a l i n e
pH 8 . 2 ; c l e a r wavy boundary.
( 2 5 - 3 5 cm t h i c k )
C2ca
36-71 cm--Whi t e ( I OYR 8 / 2 ) very g r a v e l l y s a n dry loam;
l i g h t gray ( I OYR 7 / 2 ) mo i s t ; massi ve- s t r u c t u r e ;
s o f t , very f r i a b l e , n o n s t i c k y , n o n p l a s t i c ,
p a r t i a l l y cemented w i t h l i me and s i l i c a ; common
f i n e r oot s t hr oughout h o r i z o n ; common f i n e i n t e r ­
s t i t i a l por es; c a l ci u m car bonat e cutans on sand
and g r a v e l ; .50 p e r c e n t g r av el and 20 per cent
cobbles.; v i o l e n t l y e f f e r v e s c e n t ; mode r a t e l y
a l k a l i n e pH 8 . 4 ; c l e a r i r r e g u l a r boundary.
IICca
71 - 152 c m - - L i g h t brownish gray ( I OYR 6 / 2 ) very
g r a v e l l y loamy sand; brown (I OYR 5 / 3 ) moi st ;
sin gle grain s t r u c t u r e ; loose, loose, nonsticky,
n o n p l a s t i c ; many f i n e and medium i n t e r s t i t i a l
por es; ca l ci um ca r b ona t e cutans on l ower s u r ­
f aces o f f r a g me n t s ; 50 p e r c e n t g r a v e l , 20 p e r c e n t
c obbl es; s l i g h t l y e f f e r v e s c e n t ; m o d e r a t e ! y
aI k a l i n e pH 8 . 4 .
20
Tabl e 2 - Mo r p h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o i l s .
Typical
pedon o f M u s s e l s h e l l Loam.
Tentative C la s s ific a tio n :
B o r o l l i c C a l c i o r t h i d s , coarse-loamy, c a r b o n a t i c . *
Al
Cl Ca
C2ca
C3ca
0 - 1 0 Cm- - L i g h t brownish gray ( I OYR 6 / 2 ) l i g h t loam;
dark g r a y i s h brown ( I OYR 4 / 2 ) m o i s t ; weak f i n e
g r a n u l a r s t r u c t u r e ; s l i g h t l y h a r d , ver y f r i a b l e ,
s l i g h t l y s t i c k y , n o n p l a s t i c ; many f i n e root s
t hr oughout h o r i z o n ; common i r r e g u l a r por es, few
to common f i n e and medium t u b u l a r pores; cal ci um
ca r b ona t e cutans on l ower sur f a c e s o f f r a g m e n t s ;
15 p e r c e n t f i n e grav'el ; s l i g h t l y e f f e r v e s c e n t ;
mo d e r a t e l y a l k a l i n e pH 8 . 0 ; abr upt smooth
boundary.
( 8 - 1 5 cm t h i c k )
10 - 2 0 c m - - L i g h t gray ( I OYR 7 / 3 ) loam; brown ( I OYR
5 / 3 ) m o i s t ; weak coarse subangul ar bl ocky s t r u c ­
t u r e ; s l i g h t l y ,hard; f r i a b l e , s l i g h t l y s t i c k y ,
s l i g h t l y p l a s t i c ; common f i n e r oot s t hr oughout
h o r i z o n ; common f i n e t u b u l a r por es; cal ci um
ca r b ona t e cutans on l ower s u r f a c e s o f f r a g m e n t s ;
15 p e r c e n t f i n e g r a v e l ; s t r o n g l y e f f e r v e s c e n t ;
mo d e r a t e l y a l k a l i n e pH 8 . 0 ; c l e a r smooth
boundar y.
f
20 - 5 6 Cm- -Whi te ( I OYR 8 / 1 ) sandy loam; l i g h t gray
( I OYR 7 / 2 ) m o i s t ; ver y weak coarse subangul ar
bl ocky s t r u c t u r e ; s o f t , very f r i a b l e , n o n s t i c k y ,
n o n p l a s t i c ; common f i n e r oot s t hr oughout h o r i ­
zon; common f i n e v e s i c u l a r and t u b u l a r pores;
ca l c i u m ca r b ona t e cutans on l ower s u r f a c e s of
f r a g me n t s ; 15 p e r c e n t f i n e g r a v e l ; v i o l e n t l y
e f f e r v e s c e n t ; mo d e r a t e l y a l k a l i n e pH 8 . 0 ; c l e a r
wavy boundar y.
( 36- 51 cm t h i c k )
56-81 C m- - L i g h t gray ( IOYR 7 / 2 ) very g r a v e l l y sandy
loam; pa l e brown ( I OYR 6 / 3 ) mo i s t ; massive s t r u c ­
t u r e e x t r e m e l y hard , e x t r e m e l y f i r m , n o n s t i c k y ,
n o n p l a s t i c , p a r t i a l l y cemented w i t h l i me and
s i l i c a ; few f i n e r oot s matted around g r a v e l ; few
f i n e i n t e r s t i t i a l por es; cal ci um car bona t e
cutans on sand and g r a v e l ; 50 p e r c e n t g r a v e l ,
20 p e r c e n t c o bb l e s ; v i o l e n t l y e f f e r v e s c e n t ;
mo d e r a t e l y a l k a l i n e pH 8 . 0 ; gr adual wavy
boundary.
( 2 5 - 3 0 cm t h i c k )
Tabl e 2 - Continued
IICca
8 1 - 1 5 2 Ct n- - Li ght brownish gray ( I OYR 6 / 2 ) very
g r a v e l l y loamy s a n d ; brown ( IOYR 5 / 3 ) mo i s t ;
single grain s t r u c t u r e ; loose, loose, no n s ti c k y ,
n o n p l a s t i c ; many f i n e and medium i n t e r s t i t i a l
pores; cal ci um ca r b ona t e cutans on l ower s u r ­
f aces o f f r a g me n t s ; 50 pe r c e nt g r a v e l , 20 p e r ­
cent c o bb l e s ; s l i g h t l y e f f e r v e s c e n t ; mode r a t e l y
a l k a l i n e pH 8 . 0 . *
* T h is p r o f i l e f a l l s o u t s i d e the range of the c l a s s ­
i f i c a t i o n f o r Mu s s e l s h e l l s e r i e s by exceedi ng 35 p e r c e n t
rock f r agment s by volume in the 25 cm to 100 cm t e x t u r e
control section.
22
wa t e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n were c o l l e c t e d .
c l i m a t e o f t he Madison V a l l e y ,
all
I n the s e m i - a r i d
of the s o i l
Water a v a i l
a b l e to n a t i v e range has been d e p l e t e d by t he end of J u l y
in most y e a r s .
Soil
wa t e r samples c o l l e c t e d a t the end o f
J u l y should be a good a p p r o x i ma t i o n o f 15 bar w a t e r .
It
was t h e o r i z e d
t he p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t hese two s o i l s
was l i m i t e d
by the r a t e o f f l o w t hrough the c o n c e n t r a t e d
l i me zone.
An a t t e m p t was made to measure i n f i l t r a t i o n
this
zone by e x c a v a t i n g down to t he c o n c e n t r a t e d
zone and p l a c i n g
in filtration
rings
in i t .
-in
l ime
The measured
i n t a k e r a t e s over a f o u r hour p e r i o d were i n excess of
those det er mi ned e a r l i e r on t he r e s e a r c h p l o t s .
These r e ­
s u l t s were not co ns i de r e d c o n c l u s i v e as we were unabl e to
use a b u f f e r pond and the r i n g s were n e a r l y i mp o s s i b l e to
seal
ever,
i n t he p a r t i a l l y
this
cemented g r a v e l l y Cca h o r i z o n .
How­
ho r i z on was more permeabl e than "previ ousl y ■
ex pe c t e d .
Total
Soil
Soils
Water (Appendi x 2)
c o n t a i n i n g a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f rock fragments
commonly have a g r e a t v a r i a t i o n
f r agment s w i t h i n
vertically.
in s i z e and amount of
short distances,
Branson et a l .
(1965)
both h o r i z o n t a l l y and
described
soils
having
23
80 p e r c e n t rock f r agment s g r e a t e r than 2 m i l l i m e t e r s
in
some areas and 10 p e r c e n t in a d j a c e n t p o r t i o n s o f the
same p r o f i l e .
Thi s v a r i a t i o n
C o u n t y , Montana i n s o i l s
bedrock m a t e r i a l s .
t he f i n e
is not uncommon in Madison
formed from e i t h e r t r a n s p o r t e d or
Most of the wat er i n a s o i l
earth portion
rather
held in
than by the fr agment s
g r e a t e r than 2 m i l l i m e t e r s ' in d i a m e t e r .
wa t e r a v a i l a b l e
is
to p l a n t s w i t h i n
Therefore,
any s o i l
profile
the
may vary
w i d e l y j u s t as the p r o p o r t i o n of rock f r agment s do.
Rock
f r agment c o n t e n t i n the subst r at um of t hese two s o i l s
appears to be q u i t e u n i f o r m.
Four bulk samples of the
subst r at um wei ghi ng 9 to 12 ki l ogr ams
each i n d i c a t e d
79,
80,
81,
(20 t o 28 pounds)
and 82 p e r c e n t
by wei ght rock
fragments.
A f t e r 5 ye ar s o f f i e l d
Montana,
of s o i l
soil
survey in Madison County,
I must agree w i t h R e i n h a r t
moi s t ur e c o n t e n t
in st ony s o i l s
c u l t j o b and accur acy o b t a i n e d w i l l
than f o r
soils
like
in t h i s
(by w e i g h t )
( 19 6 1 ) ,
determinations
"Measurement
i s a t best a d i f f i ­
of n e c e s s i t y be lower
in s t o n e - f r e e s o i l s " .
With
st udy c o n t a i n i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80 pe r c ent
rock f r a g m e n t s , e x c a v a t i o n was det er mi ned to
be the onl y p o s s i b l e way to c o l l e c t
soil
wa t e r samples.
24
The per c ent age o f wa t e r r emai ni ng in a s o i l
days a f t e r
having been s a t u r a t e d and a f t e r
has p r a c t i c a l l y
capacity"
s e q u e n t l y , the f i r s t
days
f r e e d r ai n ag e
ceased i s consi der ed to be " f i e l d
( Gl o s s a r y o f S o i l
(60 hour s)
soil
after
2 or 3
Sci ence Terms 1 9 7 5 ) .
moi st ur e
Con-
wat er sample was t aken about 2 . 5
saturation.
Small
quantities
wa t e r c o nt i nue d to d r a i n f o r extended pe r i o ds a f t e r
uration,
5,
9,
so a d d i t i o n a l
soil
and 16 days a f t e r
capacities
of f r e e
sat­
wa t e r samples were c o l l e c t e d
saturation.
The a v a i l a b l e wat er
i n a 152 c e n t i m e t e r depth were c a l c u l a t e d
13.5 centimeters
(5.3
the Gravel
soil
and 19. 3
centimeters
i n c h e s ) f o r the Mu s s e l s h e l l
soil
(Appen-
dix l ) .
(7.6
inches)
for
to be
Thi s compares f a v o r a b l y w i t h e s t i ma t e d a v a i l a b l e
wa t e r c a p a c i t i e s
used by the S o i l
Con ser va t i on S e r v i c e f o r
t hese s o i l s .
Al t hough t he s u r f a c e was covered to p r e v e n t evapotranspiration,
t h ese very g r a v e l l y
soils
s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f g r a v i t a t i o n a l
sampl i ng.
the' s o i l
water p r e s e n t , i n
gravitational
sa mp l i ng ,
wat er a f t e r
The f o u r t h sample o f Crave!
40 p e r c e n t and the Mussel shel I
cont i nue d to l ose
soil
if
had onl y about
soi l about 60 p e r c e n t of
the f i r s t
sample.
wa t e r may have been l o s t a f t e r
however*
the f i r s t !
Very l i t t l e ,
the f i r s t
the p l a n t s . w e r e al l owed to use the
25
f r e e wa t e r du r i ng t h i s
The c a l c i c
16 day p e r i o d .
hor i z ons o f t h e s e s o i l s
80 p e r c e n t ca l ci um ca r b ona t e i n the f i n e
Some t h i n
is
strata
have as much as
earth f r a c t i o n .
a r e l i me cement ed, but the cemented zone
not c o n t i n u o u s .
Layers of n e a r l y cl ean g r a v e l
ar e
s e p a r a t e d by t hi rj p a r t i a l I y cemented zones i n t he under ­
lying m a t e r ia l.
tions
ar e o f t e n
ca r bonat es
Gile
(1961)
states
s e p a r a t e d by s o i l
in t he e a r l y
t h a t ca r b ona t e a c c r e ­
matrix with l i t t l e
st ages o f c a r bona t e a c c u m u l a t i o n .
I n c r e a s i n g a c cumul at i o n l eads to more c o n t i n u o u s ,
uni f or m d i s t r i b u t i o n
individual
t h r oughout t he h o r i z o n .
nodules grow and f i n a l l y
zones o f r e s t r i c t e d
saturated soil
or no
permeability,
more
Not onl y do
mer ge, t hey al s o form
f u n n e l ing t he c a r b o n a t e -
s o l u t i o n to p r e v i o u s l y non-cemented p a r t s
o f t he h o r i z o n .
The devel opment o f cement at i on
i s shown
by i n c r e a s i n g hardness o f the carbonate, c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ,
i n c r e a s e in bul k d e n s i t y ,
pr i ma r y mi ner al
and by i nc r e a s e d s e p a r a t i o n of
g r a i n s as c a r b o n a t e c r y s t a l s
grow ( Brown 1 956;
c o n t i n u e to
Fl ach e t a I . 1 969 arid G i l e e t al . 1965
and I 9 6 6 ) .
The Crave!
and Mu s s e l s h e l l
soils
have c a r b o n a t i c
mi n e r a l o g y which i s d e f i n e d as "more than 40 p e r c e n t by
we i ght car bona t es
( expr essed as CaCOg) pl us gypsum,
and
by
26
the car bona t es ar e g r e a t e r than 65 p e r c e n t o f the. sum of
ca r bona t es and gypsum"
a t i c mi n e r a l o g y
(less
(Soil
Survey S t a f f
1975).
i s det er mi ned on the f i n e e a r t h
than 2 m i l l i m e t e r s )
■
.
or the who! e s o i l
'
j
.
Carbonportion
(less
than 20
■ ■■■
mi I i i m e t e r s ).., wh i che ver . has a h i g h e r , ' p e r c e n t a g e o f car bon.■
:;
■■
'' '
■' V
ates.
-
The.soils
studied
1
in t h i s
■
r e se ar ch have g r e a t e r than
'
40 p e r c e n t C a O O g i n the f i n e e a r t h f r a c t i o n
by a si mpl e volume cal c.i,meter.
It
as det er mi ned
is d i f f i c u l t
to d e t e r ­
mine whet her the, l e s s than 20 m i l l i m e t e r f r a c t i o n would
'
.
'
j ^,
.
.
have an even h i g h e r per c ent age o f c a r b o n a t e s .
I f the
thick
CaCO3 c o a t i n g on- the l a r g e r
ically
removed i n chi ps l es s
diameter,
f r agment s were phys­
than 20 m i l l i m e t e r s
t hey too coul d be i n c l u d e d .
in
Many o f the c o a t ­
ings on t hese rock fragments are n e a r l y pure CaCOg, so i f
included,
Thi s
t hey would most c e r t a i n l y
is a question
the r e s u l t s .
i n t he procedure f o r d e t e r m i n i n g c a l ­
cium ca r b ona t e e q u i v a l e n t s
to f i n d an answer.
influence
f o r which I have been unable
A well-defined
st andar d procedure must
be r e c o g n i z e d to o b t a i n p r e c i s e measurements.
I q u e s t i o n whet her 40 p e r c e n t C a C O g by i t s e l f
real
significance,
unl ess
has any
it
can be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
devel opment o f a p e t r o c a l c i c
h o r i z o n or a t l e a s t an i n i
27
d i c a t o r ' o f reduced p e r m e a b i l i t y or reduced r o o t p e n e t r a -
i
t i on.
A f t e r worki ng wi t h
County,
level
highly calcareous s o il s
Montana and d i s c u s s i n g the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the
of CaCOg i n s o i l s w i t h the S oi l
Con s e r v a t i on S e r v i c e in Montana,
e t al .
in Madison
S t a f f o f the Soi l
I must agree w i t h Ant er
(1 973 ) t h a t once CaCOg comprises 10 to 15 percent,
o f t he s o i l
chemical
component i t
characteristics.
controls
the s o i l ' s
Further
biological
increases
c o n t e n t above TO to 15 p e r c e n t have l i t t l e
and
in CaCOg
e f f e c t on p l a n t
growth.
--
These s o i l s
coul d be appr oachi ng the e a r l y stages o f
the devel opment o f a p e t r o c a l c i c
in the b u i l d
et al.
horizon.
Seve r a l
stages
up of car bona t e hor i z ons are r e c o g n i z e d
1966 and B i r k e l a n d 1 974’) .
In g r a v e l l y
( Gi I e
sedi ment s,
t he mor phogenet i c sequence of ca r b ona t e a c cumul at i on i s :
I.
Carbonat e forms t h i n
the under si des
discontinuous
of coarse f r a g me n t s .
pebbl e c o a t i n g s bn
Carbonat es probabl y
accumul at e on t he under si des of coarse f r agment s f i r s t
because downward moving wat er tends to c o l l e c t
11'.
there'.
Carbonat e c o n t i n u o u s l y coat s pebbles and f i l l s
some
'
interstices
coat s
between pebbT.es., I l l /
skeletal
g r a i n s and. plugs
Carbonat e c o n t i n u o u s l y
interstices
to cement the
28
soil.
IV.
Car bonat e forms a l a m i n a r hor i z on on top of
an i n d u r a t e d p e t r o c a l c i c
have l ess
total
horizon.
Very g r a v e l l y
soils
pore space than n o n - g r a v e l I y s o i l s ,
c o nse qu ent l y p e t r o c a l c i c
hor i z ons form much more r a p i d l y
i n very g r a v e l l y
The two s o i l s
soils.
r e se ar ch ar e i n st age
studied
in t h i s
11 or 111 of t he morphogenet i c
sequence o f ca r b ona t e a c c u m u l a t i o n .
The f o r m a t i o n o f c a l c i c
arid
and s e m i - a r i d s o i l s
f ormi ng p r o c ess es .
wat er movement pl ays
t hese l a y e r e d s o i l s
movement o f s o i l
soils
penetrates
It
will
until
has been l a r g e l y o v e r l o o k e d .
restricted
when f i n e
by sand and g r a v e l
soil
will
layers.
in
Downward
textured
Water
u n i f o r m l y both l a t e r a l l y
the w e t t i n g f r o n t
not e n t e r the coar se l a y e r s
It
to s o i l -
t h a t t he physi cs o f s o i l
reaches the g r a v e l .
until
wa t e r accumul ates t o n e a r l y s a t u r a t e
soil.
in
i n the accumul at i on o f ca r bonat es
the f i n e t e x t u r e d
and v e r t i c a l l y
hor i z ons
is g e n e r a l l y a t t r i b u t e d
The r o l e
wa t e r i s
ar e u n d e r l a i n
and p e t r o c a l c i c
sufficient
the f i n e t e x t u r e d
then l e a k t hrough a t some l o c a l i z e d
point
and move r a p i d l y downward, l e a v i n g the sur r oundi ng gr avel
dry,
w h i l e t he f i n e r
textured
mains n e a r l y s a t u r a t e d
we l l
(M iller
soil
i mme d i a t e l y above r e ­
1969).
demonst rat ed in t hese Gravel
Thi s phenomenon is
and Mussel s h e l l
soils
29
by the s o i l
wa t e r data
p a r t o f t hese p r o f i l e s
(Appendix 2 ) .
had 2 to 3 ti mes the expect ed s o i l
wa t e r f o r
t hese types of m a t e r i a l s .
the t o t a l
soil
loamy s o i l
The loamy upper
A high p r o p o r t i o n of
wa t e r remained above the c o n t a c t o f the
and t h e , u n d e r l y i n g m a t e r i a l
t hr oughout the
st udy p e r i o d .
The l i n e a r
ti me
relationship
(Appendix I d and T i )
Thi s unusual
of t o t a l
wa t e r
i s not t y p i c a l
c o n d i t i o n can be a t t r i b u t e d
i n t a k e wi t h
of most s o i l s .
to the accumul at i on
o f wa t e r a t the i n t e r f a c e o f the loamy s o i l
lying
ver y g r a v e l l y
In l a y e r e d
Valley,
bo na t e ,
soil.
soils
precipitation
and g r av el
evapotranspiration.
ti me u n t i l
colation
is often
layers
r egi ons
textured
the Madison
t o e n t e r sand
soil.
Calcium c a r ­
ar e d e po s i t e d a t or near
as wa t e r
is removed by
Carbonates c o n t i n u e to accumul ate
the voids become plugged and wa t e r p e r ­
t hrough the zone i s g r e a t l y
l ess o f the a c t u a l
formation,
like
insufficient
and o t h e r s a l t s
the top o f the g r a v e l
with
of s e mi - a r i d
underlying a f i n e r
silica,
and the unde r ­
process i n v o l v e d
restricted.
in c a l c i c
Regard­
hor i z on
the i mport ance o f wa t e r movement and i t s
impedence is e v i d e n t .
CONCLUSIONS
1.
Crave!
The r e s u l t s
and Mu s s e l s h e l l
Saturated
meters
c o n c l u s i v e l y demonst rat e t hese
hydraulic
per hour ( 1 . 0
soils
have moderate p e r m e a b i l i t y .
c o n d u c t i v i t i e s were 2 . 5
to 1 . 4 inches per hour)
to 3 . 5 c e n t i ­
near the
mi ddl e o f the moderate p e r m e a b i l i t y range o f 1 . 5 to 5. 0
centimeters
2.
Cravel
per hour ( 0 . 6
soil
centimeter
is
is
(60 i n c h)
(5.3
19.3 centimeters
dept h.
i nche s)
(7.6
and f o r t h i s
inches)
Any a d d i t i o n a l
in a 152
wa t e r r e a d i l y
, ,
for
"field
does not appl y to t hese Cravel
moi s t ur e
and Mussel s h e l l
The a c cumul at i on of wa t e r a t the i n t e r f a c e o f the
loamy s o i l
4.
soil
The st andar d d e f i n i t i o n
capacity"
normal
13.5 centimeters
away.
3.
soils.
inches per h o u r ) .
The maximum a v a i l a b l e wa t e r c a p a c i t y f o r t h i s
Mu s s e l s h e l l
drains
to 2 . 0
and t he u n d e r l y i n g ver y g r a v e l l y
gravitational
soil
restricts
wa t e r d r a i n a g e .
A well-defined
st andar d procedure f o r d e t e r mi n i n g
cal ci um c a r bona t e e q u i v a l e n t s
is needed.
RECOMMENDATIONS -
I
These s o i l s
a r e not s u i t e d to f l o o d
Their
limited
light
irrigations.
irrigation
centimeters
irrigation.'
a v a i l a b l e wa t e r c a p a c i t i e s
on t h i s
(2.0
General
Gravel
to 2 . 5
require frequent,
recommendations f o r
soil
sprinkler
ar e to r e p l a c e 5 . 0 to 6 . 0
i nche s)
soil
wa t e r ever y 8 to 10
days du r i ng the p e r i o d of peak crop u s e . 1 General
ations
for sprinkler
irrigation
ar e to r e p l a c e 7 . 5 c e n t i m e t e r s
on t h i s
Mu s s e l s h e l l
(3 i n che s)
of soil
ever y 12 days du r i n g the pe r i o d o f peak crop use.
t hese s o i l s
area,
soil .
occur i n complex,
irrigation
recommend
soil
wat er
Where;
as they do in the study
management should be based oh the CraVel
APPENDICES
33
APPENDIX I
F i e l d S a t u r a t e d H y d r a u l i c C o n d u c t i v i t y Data
The data a r e . a r r a n g e d
refers
ponds.
by s o i l
to t he l a r g e . 3 . 0 meter
Ring r e f e r s
the pond.
(10 f o o t )
to the i n f i l t r a t i o n
Time o f r e a d i n g is
The term " F i l l "
series
refers
name.
Pond
square b u f f e r
r i n g pl aced i n s i d e
r ecor ded in m i l i t a r y
t i me .
to pl acement o f wa t e r i n the pond.
Hook gage r e a d i n g and wa t e r i n t a k e ar e r ecor ded i n inches'.
Infiltration
curves and t o t a l
cl uded to b e t t e r
interpret
wa t e r i n t a k e curves are i n ­
the d a t a .
Appendix
Crave!
Pond
7-14-75
I a - C o n t i nued
Time of
R e a d i ng
1 0 : 50
10: 55
11 : 00
11 : 05
11 : 1 0
Fill
11: 15
11 : 2 0
11 : 25
11 : 3 0
1 1: 40
Fill
11 : 5 0
12 : 00
12 : 3 0
Fill
13 : 05
14 : 02
14 : 17
Fill
15 : 00
16 : 00
Fill
17 : 0 0
17 : 30
Fill
18:30
19 : 30
Fill
'
,
Hook Gage
Water
,Reading
________ , I nt ake
in
8.15
7.90
.25
-7. 65
.25
7.45
. 20
7.20
. 25
8.50
8.35
. 15
8.15 \
. 20
7.95
. . . 20
7.80
. 15
7.35
.45
9.10
8.80
. 30
8.45
.35
7.60
. 85
8.60
7.75 .
. 85
■6 . 4 0 .
1.35
6.10
. 30
9.05
7. 7 5
1.30
6.50
1.25
9.25
7.90
1.30
7.20
. 70
9.45 ■
8.10
1.35
- 6. 5 5
1.55
9.00
35
Appendix
Crave!
Ri nq
7-14-75
lb-
Continued
Time of
Reading
1 0 : 45
1 0 : 50
Fill
10 : 5 5
T l : 00
Tl : 05
1 1 : 10
Fill
11 : 15
11 : 20
11: 25
11 : 30
11:40
Fill
11 : 50
1 2 : 00
12 : 30
13 : 05
14 : 00
14 : 15
Fill
15 : 0 0
16 : 0 0
Fill
17 : 00
17 : 3 0
Fill
18 : 3 0
19 : 3 0
Fill
Hook Gage
Water
Reading
,
Intake
------------------------ i n ------------- ----6.95
6.65
. 30
7.70
7. 4 5
. . 25
7.25
. 20
7.00
. 25
.,20
6.80
8.20
8.05
. 15
7. 8 5
. 20
7. 6 5
. 20
7.55
. 10
. 35
, 7.20
9.10
8.90
. 20
. 25
8.65
8.00
. 65
. 60
7.40
1.00
6.40
. 25
6.15
8.00
. 90
7.10
6.20
. 90
8.15
1.05
7.10
. 45
6.65
8.50
1.00
7.50
1.10
6.40
8.85
36
A p p e n d i x Ic- C o n t i n u e d
Cravel
Pond
X Crave!
Ring
In/Hr
Time ( Hr s)
Cravel
In filtration
Curves
37
Appendi x I d -
Continued
■j
i
I
t
Z
3
]
4
i
5
I
b
I
l
Hrs
Total
wat er
i n t a k e of Gravel
soil .
*
6
1
S
38
Appendix I e Mussel s h e l l
Pond
7-14-75
Conti nued
-
Time of
Reading
1 3 : 30
13: 35
13 : 40
Fill
13: 45
1 3 : 50
13: 55
Fill
14 : 0 0
14: 05
14: 15
14 : 2 5
14: 35
Fill
14 : 45
15 : 15
15 : 4 5
Fill
16 : 4 5
17: 15
Fill
18 : 15
19 : 15
Fill
Hook Gage
Reading
- ^ - - - - ------------ i n - 6.80
6.15
5.80
7.40
7. 2 0
6.85, .
6.45
7.40
7.20
7. 0 5
6.60
6.25
5. 8 5
7.45
7. 1 5
6.25
5. 3 5
7.50
5. 95
5.50
8.25 ■
6.70
5.40
8.25
Water
• Intake
. 65
. 35
. 20
. 35
. 40
.
.,20
. 15
. 45
. 35
. 40
. 30
■ . 90
. 90
1. 5 5
.4-5
I . 55
1.30
Appendix I f Mussel s h e ! I
20" Rinq
7-14-75
Conti nued
Time o f
Reading
Hook Gage
Water
Re a d i nq
Intake
.......... ...........- - - i n ------------- - —
6.90
6.10
5.90
5.60
8.25
7.70
. 55
7.00
. 70
6.45
. 55
8.10
7.60
" . 50
7.20
. 40
. 6. 5 5
. 65 ■
6. 0 5
. 50
5.60
. 45
7.95
7.60
. 35
6. 7 5
. 85
. ,6.00
. 75
7. 6 0
6.35
1.25,
■ 5.95
. 40
8.35
7.00
1.35
5.70
1.30
8.50
■
O
CO
O
CO
13 : 30
13 : 3 5
Fill
I 3: 40
. Fill
13 : 4 5
13 : 50
13: 55
Fill
14:00
14: 05
1 4 : 15
14: 25
,14:35
Fill
14 : 45
15 : 15
15 : 45
Fill
1 6 : 45
17 : 15
Fill
18 : 15
19: 15
Fill.
,
40Appendix
Ig-
Continued
Mussel s h e ! I
12" Ring
Time o f
Reading ,
7-14-75
.
13 : 58
14:03.
14 : 0 8
14 : 18
14 : 28
Fill
14 : 46
15 : 15
15: 45
Fill
16: 50
17: 15
Fill
18 : 15
19 : 1 5
Fill
Hook Gage
R e a d i nq
Water
intake
------------------ -- - - i n -----------------1.50
1.35
. 15
.1.20
. 15
. 90
. 30
. 70
. 20
. 3.20
2.85
, . 35
1. 8 5
T. 00
. 75
1.10
3.75
2.30
1. 4 5
1. 65
. 65
. 3.90
2.60
■ 1.30
1.30
I . 30
4.65
41
Appendix
Th-
Continued
Mu s s e l s h e l l
Pond
X Mussel s h e l l
20
O Mu s s e l s h e l l
12" Ring
In/Hr
Time ( Hr s)
Mu s s e l s h e l l
Infiltration
Curves
42
Appendix
Ti-
Continued
Total
• Mu s s e l s h e l l
Pond
X Mu s s e l s h e l l
Ring- 20
wat er i n t a k e o f Mu s s e l s h e l l
soil.
,43
APPENDIX 2
Basic S o i l - W a t e r Data
The dat a ar e ar r anged by s o i l
date.
The dry wei ght of s o i l
amount o f m a t e r i a l
were det er mi ned
greater
in grams.
series
name and sample
sample, wat er
loss,
than 2 m i l l i m e t e r s
and the
in d i ame t er
The p e r c e n t wat er on the basis
o f the dry wei ght o f f i n e e a r t h was c a l c u l a t e d as f o l l o w s :
Wt.
%
H2O, f i n e s
Calculations
headings):
Wt . of H O
= _____________ ;_________ ^
__________
Sample dry Wt . - W t . o f 2 mm-mat eri al
f o r t he f o l l o w i n g
(B)X(C)
= D,
dat a a r e
(D)X(E)
X I 00
(See column
= F , and ( A ) X ( F )
= G.
A v a i l a b l e wat er c a p a c i t y can be det er mi ned f o r each
sampl i ng dat e by s u b t r a c t i n g
t he Mu s s e l s h e l l
column
dry s o i l ,
t he t o t a l
sampled 7 - 3 1 ,
(G) f o r each sampling d a t e .
o f column
(G) f o r
from t he t o t a l
of
Appendix 2 - iC ontinued
Cravel
Date
(A)
(B)
(C)
Wt . o f HgO Bul k D e n s i t y
Fin.e Ear t h - Fi ne Ear t h
g/cm3 .
%
Depth
cm
O^lO
10 - 20
20 - 35
35-55"
55 - 80
80-110
110-141
141- 152
0
1
O
KO
I
7- 17
O
O
CO
I
ro
10 - 20
20 - 35
35- 55
55- 80
80-110
110-141
141-152.
10 - 20
20 - 35
.35-55
55 - 8 0
80-110
110-141
141- 152
25.0
35.6
46. 1
35.3
27.6
21.4
19.3
15.2
I .1
1.3
1. 4 3
1.43
1.3
1.3
I .3
1.3
27.6
31.4
30.6
25.3
22.1
20.8
13.5
15.0
1.1
1.3
1.43
I . 43
1.3
1.3
1.3
1. 3
24.1
32.5
40.5
32.1
24.1
15.0
14.2
12.6
1.3
I . 43
1.43
1. 3
1. 3
1.3
.
1. 3
(D)
V o l . o f HgO
Fi ne Ear t h
%
'
1 . 1
'
27.5
46.-3
65.9
50.5
35.9
27.8
25.1
19.8
(E)
V o l . of
Fi ne Ear t h
' %
80
80
80
30
30
30 .
30
30
30.4
. 40.8
43.8
36.2
28.7
27.0
17.6
19.5
80
80
,80
30
30
30
30
30
26.5
42.2
-57.9
45.9
31.3
19.5
- 18. 5
16.4
80
.8,0
80
30
30
30
30
30
( F) (G)
V o l . , of HgO
Whole Soi l
% '
cm
22.0
37.0
52.7
15.1
10.8
8.3
7.5
5.9 . .
24.3
32.7
35.0 1 0 . 8 .
8.6 8.1
5.3
5.8
•
.
21.2
33,8 .
46.3
13 . 8
9.4
5.85. 5
4.9
2. 2
3. 7
7.9
3.0
2.72.5
2.3
0.6
2.4
3.3
5.2
2.2
2.2
2. 5
1. 6
,0.6
2.1
3 . 4:
6.9
2.8
2. 4
1.8
I .7
0.5
Appendix 2 - Conti nued
Gravel — C o n t i nued
-Date
7- 3 0
(A)
Depth
• cm
(B)
Wt . o f HgO
Fi ne Ear t h
%
0- 10
10 - 2 0
2 0 - 35
35- 55
55 - 80
80-110
110-141
141- 152
28.1
31.1
21.4
21.1
20. 1
14.2
10.0
16.2
(C)
Bulk D e n s i t y
Fi ne Earth
g/cm^ •
1.1
1.3
1.43
1.43
. 1.3
1.3
1. 3
1. 3
(D)
V o l . o f HgO
Fi ne Ear t h
%
(E)
V o l. of
Fi ne Ear t h
30.9
40.4
30.6
30.2
26.1
18.5
13.0
21.1
80
80
80
30
30
30
30
30
-
%
(F)
(G)
V o l . of HgO
Whol e S o i l
%
cm
24.7
32.3
24.5
9.1
7.8
5.5
3.9
6.3
2.5
3.2
3.7
1.8
2.0
1.7
1.2
0.6.
^
Appendix 2 - iC o n t i nued
Mussel s h e ! I
Depth
cm
(B)
Wt. o f HgO
Fi ne Ear t h
%
(C)
Bulk De n s i t y
Fi ne Ear t h
g/cnr3
(D)
V o l . o f HgO
Fine. Ear t h
0- 1 0
10 - 2 0
.20-35
35 - 55
55 - 8 0
80-110
110-141
1.41-152
26.5
38.5
36,5
34.9
42.5
25.4
16.9
18.5
1.1
1.3
1.3
'1.43
1.43.
1.3
1.3
1.3
29.2
50.0
47.4
49.9
60.8
33.0
22.0
24.0
7-19
0-10
I 0-20 .
20-35
35 - 55
55-80
80-110
110-141
141- 152
30.7
37.2
27.6
30.9
19.4
17.8
14.1
13.2
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.43
I . 43
1,3
1.3
1.3
7- 23
0-1 0
10 - 20
20 - 3 5
35 - 55
55 - 80
80-110
110-141
141- 152
24.9
31.0
30.1
33.0
2.3.6
15.4
13.1
14.8
1.1
.
1.3
1.3
1.43
1.43
I .3
1.3
1.3
Date
7- 17
(A)
'
%
(E)
V o l . of
Fi ne Earth
%
(F)
(G)
V o l . of H20
Whole S o i l
% •
cm
85
85
80
80
30
30
30
30
24.8
42.5
38.0
39.9
18.2
9.9
6.6
7.2
2.5
4.2
5.7
8.0
4.6
3.0
2.0
0.7
33.7
48.4
35.9
44.2
27 . 7
23.1
18.3
17.2
.85
85
■80
80
30 .
30 •
30
30
28.7
41. 1.
28 . 7
35.4
8.3
6.9
5. 5
5. 2
2.9
4. 1
4.3
7.1
2.1
2.1
1.7
0.5
27.4
40.3
39.1
47.2
33.7
20.0
17.0
19.2
85
85
80
80
30 '
30
30.
30
23 . 3
34 . 3
31 .3
37.8
10.1
6,0
5.1
5.8
2.3
3.4
4.7
7.6
2.5
1.8
1.6
0.6
.
Appendix 2 - Conti nued
Mussel s h e l l - - C o n t i n u e d
. Date
(A)
_______ Depth
cm
7- 3 0
0-10
10 - 20
20- 35
35 - 55
55 - 80
8 0 - 11 0
110-141
141- 152
(B)
Wt. o f HgO
Fi ne Ear t h
%
24.3
31 .2
27.6
30 . 4
1.5.7
14.7
12.9
15.6
(C)
Bulk D e n s i t y
Fi ne Ear t h
g/cmB
(D)
V o l . o f HgO
. Fi ne Ear t h
%
(E)
V o l . of
Fi ne Ear t h
1.1
1.3
1.3
I ..43
1.43
1.3
1.3
1,3'
26.7
40.6
35.9
43.5
22.5
19.1
16.8
20.3
85
85
80
80
30
30
30
30
%'
(F)
(G)
V o l . of HgO
Whole S oi l
cm
. %
22.7
34.5
28.7
34.8
6.7
5.7
5.0
6.1
2,3
3.4
4.3
7.0
1. 7
1.8
1.5
0.6
Appendix 2 - Conti nued
Mussel s h e l l ' Dry S oi l
Date
(A)
Depth
cm
7-31
0-10
10- 20
20 - 35
35 - 55
■ 55 - 8 0
80-110
nd-141
141- 152
- (B).
Wt . o f HgO
Fi ne Ear t h
%
12.1
12.0
12.3
12.2
13.1
9.4
12.1
11.5
(C)
Bulk D e n s i t y
Fi ne Ear t h
g / cm3
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.43
I ; 43
1.3: .
1.3
1.3
(D)
V o l . o f HgO
Fi ne. Ear t h
. %
, (E) ,
V o l, of
Fine Earth
%
13.3
15.6
16.0
17.4
18.7
I 2.2
I 5.7
15.0
85
85
80
80
30
30
30
30
■
•
(F)
(G)
V o l . o f HgO
Who l e s o i l
%
cm
11 . 3
13.3
12.8
14: 0
5.6
3.7
4.7 .
4.5
1.1
1.3
I .9
2.8
1.4
1.1
1.4
0.5
OO
'49
APPENDIX 3
LABORATORY SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
I
hr
ml
12
I2
24.5
24
32
17
22
23.5
802
702
1296
1104
I 359
690
904
994
II
ml / hr
67
58.5
53
46
42.5
40.6
41
42.3
III
ml
ml / h r
882
672
I 235
1073
I 332
1573
. 906
996
68.5
56
50.4
44.7
41.6
39.6
41.2
42.4
ml
ml / hr
695
58
610 ' 51
1120
46
981
41
1214
38
600
35
774
35
838
35.7
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY CALCULATIONS
Q
h
___ = K _
A t
L
QL
Q (7 cm)
K = ______ = ________________________
t A h
t
( 5 0 . 2 4 cm2 ) X 10 cm
Q is t he volume of wa t e r passi ng t hrough the m a t e r i a l
in t i me ( t ) ; A i s the area of the s o i l column and K is
the aver age h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y in the s o i l i n t e r v a l
(L) over which t h e r e i s a h y d r a u l i c - h e a d d i f f e r e n c e ( h ) .
(h) i n r e p l i c a t i o n I I I was 9 . 5 c e n t i m e t e r s .
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S
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
4783 2
762
%
A
'***
.•
y
N37o
M223
cop. 2
McLean, D. L.
Water relations in
highly calcareous very
gravelly soils