lUCN
Marine Menace
Alien invasive species in the marine environment
About this booklet
This booklet is targeted at th e general public to highlight an
Im portant but often overlooked Issue, and to sen/e as a source
o f Information and Inspiration,
Tine material presented In this booklet Is based on a large
volum e o f w o rk luy m any Institutions and scientists around tine
w orld researching m arine Invasive sp ecies and developing
m eans to prevent, m anage and m itigate blolnvastons. Their
w o rk Is gratefully ackn o w le d ge d ,
This booklet d o e s not present n e w or prim ary Information, but
rather a synthesis o f current Issues and trends, ¡including several
exam ples of sonne o f the w o rst m arine Invasive species, their
spread and Impact,
The text of this booklet w a s written loy Maj De Poorter o f lUCN's
Invasive S p e cie s Specialist G roup, w ith contributions fronn G
D arby and J , MacKay,
This booklet has heen p ro d u ce d loy lUCN's Global Marine
Progrannnne through projects su p p orte d by th e Total C orporate
Foundation
Photographs
Front Cover: Sam uel E, Kahng; pi 2: Stefan Nehrlng; p,3 left:
JerkerTannelancler/IUCN; right: Jinn W ilk e - P a la u ; p.4: Sam uel
E, Kahng; p,5: Dan M lnchln; p,6: Both photos: Bella Galil ; p.7
left: Dan M lnchln; righii: Steve Coles; p.S: IUCN Photo Library
C) Inndne M elane; p,9: Dan M lnchln; p d C r Top photo: Inndine
M eliane. Bottom photo: Jinn W ilke; p u ll Top Photo: Inndne
M elan e , Bottom photo: Daviei Lu q ue i "Zoom on the Invasives lUCN-Eujl p h o to conn petition” ; pml 3: Jerker Tannelander/IUCN;
p . 14: Inndne Meliane; p .15: IU C N /SC M R T-M PA Seychelles;
pul 6: IUCN Photo Library © Inndne M elan e ; pul T: IUCN Photo
Library © Christian Laufenberg; pul 8: Dan M lnchln; pul 9
Pharia Degerlund; p,2Cr Audun Rlhardsen, University o f Tronnso,
Norway; p ,21 : Sam uel E, Kahng; pi,22: Ron Offernnans; p,23:
A nna ucchilplntl Annbrogl; p.24: CSIRO; p.2 5: Luigi Rlgnanese;
p ,26 Topi photo: Daviei Lu q ue i "Zoom on the Invasives - IUGNLuji p h o to com petition". B ottom photo: Soili Saesnnaa; p .2 7 :
MIT S ea G rant College Progrann; p.2 8: IUCN Photo Library
© Inndne Meliane; p.2 9: Stefan Nehrlng; p,3Ci: USG S; B ack
Cover: Sam uel E, Kahng
Design and Layout
âtta design sari, Geneva, Switzerland
Fondation
I ) ' r. N I U 1 I' K I N t
T o t a l
1
P o u r la b l o d l w r a l t É e t l a m c r
Marine menace
— an overview of the marine
invasive species issue
M ore than 70% of the earth is covered by o ce a n s and m ajor seas
S p e cie s that hi,ave heen m oved, intentionally or unintentionally,
and there are m ore than 1,6 million kilom etres of coastline. O ur
as a result o f Inum,an activity, into areas w here th e y d o not o c c u r
m arine habitats are biologically richi and extrem ely varied, from
naturally are called '¡introduced species' or 'alien species,' M any of
shallow coastal w aters to sleep sea trenches. People d e p en d
them perishi in their n e w environm ent but sonne thrive and start to
on th e resources provided Isy oce a ns and co a sts for survival
take over native biodiversity and affect hum an livelihoods— these
and w ell-being In m any w ays, M ore than a billion people rely on
are know n as invasive species. W hen a species establishes In
fish as their main or only source o f animal protein, Cither marine
a n e w environm ent, It is unlikely to he sub je cted to tine natural
resources such as shellfish) and seaw eed provide livelihoods
controls that ke p t Its population num bers In balance within Its
through sustain,aisle In,arresting w hile coastal tourism provides
natural range. W ith o u t such control Isy predators, parasites or
em p lo ym e n t and generates incom e. In th e Florida Keys alone,
disease, such sp ecies tend to increase rapidly, to tine point w here
reef-based tourism generates m ore than U S $ 1,2 billion every
th e y can take over their n e w environm ent, Marine invasive species
year.
leave hi,ad an e norm ous im p act on biodiversity, ecosystem s,
fisheries and nnariculture (breeding and farm ing m arine organism s
Yet our m arine w orld is under threat: over-exploitation o f its
for hum an consum ption), hum an health, industrial de ve lo pm e n t
resources, habitat destruction, pollution and clim ate chi,ange are
and ¡infrastructure. Alien sp ecies can he transported Isy various
all driving biodiversity loss. Arguably tine m ost insidious threat
m eans: In ship ballast w a te r or Isy attaching to hulls, as 'h itch ­
however, is th e o ne p osed loy m arine invasive species
hikers' clinging to souls,a gear or packaging, as co n sig n m e n ts of
live organism s traded to provide live bait or go u rm e t food and as
Marine habitats are populated loy different sp ecies of animals,
plants and
m icroorganism s that hi,ave evolved
pathogens, carried Isy other organism s,
in isolation,
sepiarated loy natural barriers, But Inum,ans hi,ave ove rco m e these
barriers with shipping, air travel and o ther transport m eans. As a
result, sp ecies are n o w m oving far beyond their natural ranges
into n e w areas
2
Oceans in motion
M arine o rg a n is m s have b een m o ve d a ro u n d tine w o rld for
b e lo w th e w a te rlin e w o u ld
th o u s a n d s
frons s e a w e e d a nd b a rn a cle s to shipw ornss and c ra b s (the
o f years,
w ith
o ce a n
c u rre n ts
a nd
a tta ch e d
p ro b a b ly be te e m in g w ith
life
to d riftw o o d , a nd later a id e d isy hu m a n travel o ve rse a s for
c ra b s living in h o le s drilled in th e hull by shipw ornss). M a n y o f
m ig ra tio n o r trad e . W h a t is n e w Is tine s p e e d and vo lu m e at
th e s e o rg a n ism s w o u ld n o t survive th e jo u rn e y b u t e n o u g h of
w h ic h m arine o rg a n ism s are tra n s p o rte d . Rapid Increases In
tlsens d id a nd w e re released iisto isew lo ca tio n s, A t e a ch isew
tra d e and s h ip p in g m ean w e are n o w cap),aisle o f m oving m ore
port, ais e x c h a n g e o f o rg a n ism s w o u ld ta ke p la ce w ith n e w
o rg a n is m s a ro u n d tine w o rld (In tine b a llast w a te r o f ships) in
o n e s c o lo n is in g th e sh ip s a nd being ta ke n to o th e r foreign
o n e m ontis, tin,an w e u se d to In o n e ce n tury. It Is e stim a te d
lo ca tio n s
th a t 7 ,0 0 0 s p e c ie s are ca rrie d a ro u n d tine w o rld in ballast
w a te r e v e ry d a y a nd 10 billion to n n e s o f ballast w a te r are
In th e 1 SCOs, tran s-A tla n tic sh ip p in g in creased d ra m a tica lly and
tra n sfe rre d g lo b a lly e a ch year.
m an y sp e cie s w e re tra n sp o rte d b e tw e e n E urope and th e east
A rc h a e o lo g ic a l re c o rd s slsow th a t after th e V iking s d isc o v e re d
tra n sp o rte d in tlse early 1 SCOs and Is n o w w id e sp re a d frons
c o a s t o f North A m erica, T he periw inkle (Littorina iittorea) w as
soft
C a n a d a to N e w Jersey, It Isas p ro fo u n d ly altered th e e c o lo g y
shell clans (Mya arenaria) b a c k h o m e w ith tlsens, p re s u m a b ly
N orth A m e rica, th e ir lo n g b o a ts ca rrie d th e A m e rica n
o f th e se slsores and Isas d isp la ce d th e native eastern nsucl
for fo o d . T he clans is isow w id e s p re a d th ro u g h o u t N orthern
snail (Nassarius o b so le ta ) In turn, th e eastern nsucl snail w as
E urope, To q u o te J,anses T C arlton, a m arine invasives expert:
taken overland to th e Pacific c o a s t o f th e US w h e re it d isp la ce d
«we se t th e b io lo g ica l w o rld o f th e o ce a n lis m otio n a long tinse
th e Californian horn snail (C'erathidia californica)
a g o a nd c o n tin u e to d o so today»
early 1 8 6 0s, th e E uropean green orals (m aenas is m isspellt
A lso in the
m aenas) w a s tra n sp o rte d to A m e rica bu rro w e d In Isoles m ade
S h ip s p ro vid e th e p e rfe c t tra n s p o rt for nsaisy s p e cie s, both
in ships Isy shipwornss, Similarly, th e A m erican nsucl orals
m arine and terrestrial. T he sailing sh ip s u se d by e xp lo re rs in
(R hithro p a n op e u s harrisii) w a s tra n sp o rte d to Europe lis the
th e 15th a nd 1 6 th c e n tu rie s w o u ld Is,ave b een pi,acted full o f
late 18CÜS, The E uropean greeis orals in pi,articular Isas ca u s e d
nsariise h itch h ike rs, T he bilge w a te r c o u ld co n ta in p la n kto n ic
e n o rm o u s e nvironm ental cl,ans,age (see ca se s tu d y ois pi 27)
larvae p ic k e d up lis Lisbon, Portugal a nd tra n s p o rte d a c ro s s
th e A tla n tic to N orth A m e rica, T he w o o d e n hull o f th e ship
3
Great and small
O rganism s, from th e sm allest to the largest, can
b e co m e
by num erous alien species, A similar story Is being repeated
Invaders, M ic ro s c o p ic Ja p a ne se algae have recently been found
fronn th e Baltic and A rctic Seas and the North Atlantic to the
In tine North Sea, w hile giant, m etre-long alien Pacific crains are
M editerranean, fronn tropical coral reefs all th e w a y to the
roam ing off tine Norwegian co a st (see ca se studies on pi 19)
southern shores of Tasmania, Australia, Even the A ntarctic Is no
A round tine world, fish, crains, m ussels, clam s, jellyfish, corals,
longer free o f alien m arine sp ecies
sea squirts, seaw eeds, seagrasses or marsh grasses as well as
m ic ro s c o p ic d ise a se -ca u sin g pathogens are ju st sonne of tine
W hile th e picture nnay seenn bleak, there are m any w ays to fight
life fornns that have created havoc after th e y w ere ¡introduced
back, It Is m uch harder to eradicate an alien species In a marine
Tine Im pacts fronn m arine Invasions are w id e ranging: cord
environm ent than on land, but not Im possible, If eradication Is not
grass plants can colonise va st areas o f m udflats and estuaries,
feasible, sonne fornn o f control nnay he achievable, even th o ug h
destroying shellfish te d s (see ca se stu d y on pi 29); caulerpa
this will need to he ongoing. In all cases, It Is better to prevent the
seaw eed can d o tine sanne on tine seafloor; European green
¡introduction In the first place. Prevention through m anagem ent of
crains are voracious predators that are eating their w a y through
ballast w a te r Is gaining m uch attention at the International level
m arine life w orldw ide; and swarnns o f poisonous jellyfish are
and our ability to a sse ss risks, predict Invasions and therefore
form ing a 'jellyfish belt' off the co a st of Israel, Clim ate ch a n ge
prevent them ,
Is likely to favour ¡introduced sp ecies In m any areas, and nnay
Improving, Increasing the ch a n ce that a n e w arrival can he dealt
Intensify their Im pacts
with before It turns Into a m ajor n e w Invasion, C om m unities are
Even Marine Protected Areas are not safe. Increasing num bers
te e n to participate In efforts to keep them at Isay, There Is m ore
o f visitors to th e se areas m eans th e y are at far greater risk of
and m ore w e can do, even as Individuals, to m a te a significant
biological ¡invasion. M any e c o log ical ly-ric hi areas have suffered
difference In the battle against m arine Invasive species
Is grow ing.
Surveillance and
m onitoring are
be co m in g m ore aw are o f th e threats o f m arine Invasions and are
fronn m arine Invasive species. The W a d d e n Sea Is the largest
unbroken
stretch)
of
m udflats
w o rld w id e
and
th e
largest
European w etland. O ver the last ICC) years, It has heen Invaded
Did you know?
An e s tim a te d
7 ,0 0 0 s p e c ie s are ca rrie d a ro u n d th e
w o rld In ballast w a te r e ve ry day.
A rc h a e o lo g ica l re c o rd s s h e w th a t th e V iking s b ro u g h t
h e m e withi th e m a sp e c ie s o f large N orth A m e rican
clam , p ro b a b ly for fo o d
T he com is jellyfish) w a s In tro d u ce d Into th e B la ck S ea
th ro u g h ship) ballast w a te r In th e e arly 1 9 8 0 s a nd Isy
1 9 9 4 , th e area's a n c h o v y fish e ry had a lm o s t d is a p p e a re d
(see c a s e s tu d y on pi 22)
The e stim a te d c o s t o f de a lin g withi th e freslsw ater zelsra
m usse l In tro d u ctio n In th e US for th e p e riod 1 9 8 9 -2 0 0 0
Is b e tw e e n U S $ 7 5 0 million and US $1 billion (see ca se
s tu d y on pi 18)
An
Invasion o f b la ck stripe d
m u sse ls
In a N orthern
A ustralian m arina w a s d is c o v e re d In tim e to s u c c e s s fu lly
e ra d ica te It, T he o p e ra tio n Involved u sin g sh a rp s h o o te rs
to p ro te c t d ive rs from c ro c o d ile s
Invasive impacts
T he re are an e s tim a te d 5 0 0 alien m arine sp e c ie s w ith in tine
hu m a n health) im p acts, Invasive s e a w e e d s have sm o th e re d
c o a s ta l w a te rs o f tine US, A ro u n d 2 0 0 o f tiñese are fo u n d in
s e a te c ls , invasive c ra b s roam th e sea floor eating eve ryth in g
San F ra n c is c o B ay alone. W o rld w id e tine n u m b e r is far higher,
in th e ir path, Invasive jellyfish) leave led to th e c o lla p s e o f
Winy d o e s this m atter? Winy sh o u ld w e lae w o rrie d a b o u t it,
fisheries and p e o p le have h een l-rlllecl Isy p a th o g e n s carried
w h e n m a n y Intentionally in tro d u c e d alien s p e c ie s p ro vid e us
a ro u n d in ballast w ater. S o m e tim e s th e impi,acts are q u ic k and
w ith fo o d , recre a tio n or jo b s ? Tine a n s w e r Is th a t w h ile m an y
d ra m a tic b u t m ore o fte n th e y are in d irect and su b tle a nd m ay
s p e c ie s th a t are in tro d u ce d Into a n e w e n viro n m e n t d o no
e s c a p e n o tice for s o m e tim e
harm , m a n y o th e rs have sig n ifica n t e co lo g ica l, e c o n o m ic , and
Impacts caused by marine invasive species include:
Environmental impacts
Econom ic im pacts
L oss o f native bio d ive rsity d u e to
-
Interference w ith biological re so u rce s th a t s u p p o rt fishing
-
preying u p o n native sp e cie s
and m ariculture (e.g. w h e n fish s to c k s or shieli fish sto c k s
-
d e c re a s e d ha b itat availability for native sp e cie s
co lla p se , or w h e n m ariculture is a ffe cte d Isy invasive sp e c ie s
-
add itio na l c o m p e titio n
o r p a thogens)
-
parasites a nd d ise a se
-
Interference w ith fisheries (e.g. fouling or tearing o f nets)
-
s m oth e rin g a nd o ve rg ro w th
-
D isruption to tourism
-
hybridisation, ca u sin g g e n e tic dilution
-
D am age to Infrastructure (through fouling o f pipes,
C h a n g e s to e c o s y s te m fu n ction
w h a rve s, bu o ys etc.)
C h a n g e s in nutrient cycle s
-
C e sts o f clean up or co n tro l
D e cre a se d w a te r quality
-
(hosts o f tre a tm e n t or quara n tin e
Im pacts to human health and wellbeing
Cultural im pacts
-
-
Parasites and d ise a se , s o m e tim e s lethal
C o m p e titio n withi native sp e c ie s u sed for su b s is te n c e
- D e c re a s e d recreational o p p o rtu n itie s, e.g. algal slicks,
harvesting
overgrowth) o f aquifers and sm o th e rin g o f he,achíes
-
D e gradation o f c u ltu ra llyu m p o rta n t ha b itats and reso u rce s
su ch as w a te rw a ys
5
Examples of damage
caused by marine invaders
T he Reel S e a jellyfish) (Rhopilema, n o m a d ica ) e n te re d th e
com is jelly Isas c o m p le te ly alte re d tine fo o d wels w ith in tine
M ed ite rra n e a n th ro u g h th e S u e z Granai, Each) sum m er, h uge
B la ck S e a (see c a s e s tu d y on pi 22)
sw a rm s a p p e a r alo n g th e Eastern M ed ite rra n e a n sh o re s, A t
ce rta in tim e s tiñere are 2 5 jellyfish) per sq u a re m etre fo rm in g a
'jellyfish) b e lt’ a b o u t 1 km o ffsh ore , This Is having a big Im pa ct
on fisheries a nd co a sta l Infrastructure, C o a sta l fisheries are
d is ru p te d for th e d u ra tio n o f th e sw a rm in g d u e to clo g g in g
o f n e ts a nd th e Inability to sort c a tc h e s , In Israel, to n n e s of
jellyfish) leave to lue re m o ve d from th e s e a w a te r intake pip e s
at th e tw o la rge st p o w e r plants, at an e stim a te d c o s t o f U S $
5 0 ,0 0 0
per year. C o a sta l to u rism a nd fishing Industries are
A
'
; ‘lí*
.
4,
'
‘
-t
*
■'
a ffe c te d a c ro s s Israel, Egypt, L e b an o n , T urkey and C yp rus,
T he zelsra m usse l (D reissena p o lym o rp h a ), native to E urope,
Is a fre s h w a te r s p e c ie s th a t hi,as b e c o m e a prolific Invader
‘
.
'/ •
*
< ? +
ove rse a s. It hi,as spue,ad ra p id ly th ro u g h o u t th e w a te rw a y s o f
N orth A m e rica, having tra v e lle d ' to th e US In ballast water,
Zelsra m u s s e ls e n c ru s t a n y solid s tru c tu re s In th e w a te r and
.
V -, :
JÊ Ê T
sW V
b lo c k w a te r p ip e s. E stim ates for th e c o s t o f c o n tro llin g this
s p e c ie s In N orth A m e rica are c lo s e to U S $ 1 billion o ve r
w
1 0 years. T he alien m u sse l Is a ffe ctin g native e c o s y s te m s ,
s m o th e rin g
native
m u sse ls
w hose
p o p u la tio n s
ca n
fall
d ra m a tic a lly w ith in ju s t a fe w ye a rs o f Its arrival (see c a s e
s tu d y on pi 18)
21
____
V i*
>
D a m ag e to tine e n viro n m e n t, tine e c o n o m y a nd Inum,an health
Is be in g c a u s e d Isy 'red tid e s ', Tlsese are cre a te d d u ring
Cine o f th e w o rs t m arine Invasions o c c u rre d In th e e arly 19 8 0 s
b lo o m s o f s o m e m ic ro s c o p ic alg a e k n o w n as cl in oti ag e 11ate s
w h e n th e N orth A m e rica n co m is je lly (lediyi is m issp elt) w a s
th a t p ro d u c e p o w e rfu l to xin s. Tine to xin s a c c u m u la te In filter-
In tro d u ce d Into th e B la ck S e a a nd S e a o f Azov, Tine sp e c ie s
fe e d in g o rg a n ism s su ch as o yste rs, sca llo p s o r m usse ls,
arrived In sh ip ballast w a te r and ra p id ly to o k Isold In tine fo o d -
and ca n p o iso n p e o p le wlso e a t tlsens, Tlse e ffe c ts ois otlser
rich a nd p re d a to r-fre e w a te rs o f th e B la ck S ea until, In 1 9 8 9 ,
native anim als th a t fe e d ois shellfish are nsostly u n kn o w n , but
th e re w a s an e s tim a te d 1 billion to n n e s o f th e alien sp e c ie s
oise s tu d y re p o rte d a fatal toxin p o iso n in g o f 14 h u m p b a c k
Tine jellyfish) a te v a s t q u a n titie s o f fiski e g g s and larvae as well
w h a le s o ve r a five -w e e k period, Tlse toxin
as tine Z oo p la n kto n th a t consnserd,a lly-im p o rta n t fiski fe e d on,
tlse algae G ym n o d in iu m ca te n a tu m for in sta n ce ca n c a u s e
p ro d u c e d
Isy
leading to tine c o lla p s e o f fish stootss w ith in tine B la ck Sea, By
Paralytic Shellfish P o isoning w h ic h , lis extrense c a s e s , c a u s e s
1 9 9 4 tine a n c h o v y fish e ry Is,ad a lm o s t ells,appeared. Tine alien
m u s c u la r pi,analysis, re sp ira to ry difficu ltie s a nd e ven d eath,
6
T he sp re a d o f th is algae Isas led to clo s u re s o f shellfish) farm s
lis tlse ea rly 19 0 0 s , n u m e ro u s a tte m p ts w e re m a d e to in tro d u ce
and loans on g a th e rin g w ild shellfish) w h ile th e b lo o m s occu r,
tlse A tla n tic sa lm on , w h ic h Is native to parts o f E urope a nd tlse
D in o f Iag e 11ate s ca n he a c c id e n ta lly sp re a d loy a q u a cu ltu re
e a st c o a s t o f N orth Anserina, to tlse w e s t c o a s t o f tlse US
and fisheries e q u ip m e n t such) as In o yste r c a g e s or on m usse l
Eggs o r ju venile fish w e re relea se d to try to e sta b lish self-
ro p e s a nd have a lso h een tra n s p o rte d o ve r long d is ta n c e s In
su sta in in g p o p u la tio n s, b u t th e s e a tte m p ts failed. In th e late
ballast w ater,
1 9 8 0 s how ever, sa lm on farm s w e re e s ta b lis h e d In British)
C o lu m b ia a nd W a s h in g to n
Allen s p e c ie s ca n a lso c a u s e e n viro n m e n ta l d a m a g e w h e n
S tate, wlsere A tla n tic salm on,
in tro d u ce d frons Easteris C a n a d a, are s u c c e s s fu lly reared lis
th e y 'e s c a p e ' from e n c lo s u re s such) as a q u ariu m s, zo o s or fish
salt w a te r iset pens, Teiss o f th o u s a n d s o f tlsese alien salm on
farm s. Large areas o f se a b e d In th e no rth e rn M ed ite rra n e a n
are regularly fo u n d
are n o w c a rp e te d loy c a u le rp a (C aulerpa taxifolia), an Invasive
e s c a p e e s , o r b e c a u s e o f d e lib e ra te release o f snsall fish (see
seaw eed
a lso c a s e s tu d y ois pi 2(f))
w h ic h
e c o s y s te m s
p u sh e s
a nd
out
native
fish e rm e n 's
m arine
livelihoods,
life,
d isru p ts
lis tlse N orth Pacific O ce a n , e ith e r as
M ed ite rra n e a n
bream (Sarpa salpa) e a t c a u le rp a b u t th e y a c c u m u la te to xin s
Tlse e xp e rie n c e frons tlse e arly 1 9 0 0 s led nsaisy to believe
from th e plant In th e ir flesh, m aking th e m Inedible, C a u le rp a
th a t sucls releases w o u ld isot be a p ro b le m b u t s tu d ie s slsow
Is th o u g h t to have e n te re d th e M e d ite rra n e a n a c c id e n ta lly via
th a t tlse sa lm on nais s p a w n s u c c e s s fu lly lis tlse w ild and th a t
th e M o n a c o A q u a riu m , w h e re It w a s u se d In fish ta n ks (see
ju venile
c a s e s tu d y on pi 25)
Pacific sa lm on , Tlse d iffe re n ce nsay lue d u e to tlse fa c t th a t
A tla n tic
sa lm on
c o m p e te
a g a in st
native
juvenile
tlse e s c a p e e s are ad u lts, or th a t tlse A tla n tic sa lm on have had
M an y m arine
s p e c ie s
s tu d y
tinse to a d a p t b e tte r to local c o n d itio n s lis tlse fish farnss, Tlse
on pi 2 8 a nd fish have b e c o m e Invasive th ro u g h d e lib e ra te
Alastráis D e p a rtm e n t o f Fish a nd Ganse isow c o n s id e rs w ild
In tro d u ctio n to an area as a fo o d s o u rc e o r for e ro sio n co n tro l,
A tla n tic sa lm on as a se riou s tlsreat to native Pacific salm on
w ith little k n o w le d g e o f th e d e va sta tin g Im pa cts th e y w o u ld
s p e cie s. This e xa m p le a nd nsaisy otlsers slsow w lsy It Is
leave. T he fre s h w a te r fish s p e c ie s Tilapia for e xa m p le , have
n e c e s s a ry to tre a t intentional in tro d u c tio n s withi ca u tio n . It also
been
se rve s as a re m in d e r th a t falléis' and 'n a tive 1refer to e co lo g ic a l
In tro d u ce d
In A frica and th e
In cluding o yste rs
In m a n y co u n trie s.
M id d le
(see c a s e
O riginally o c c u rrin g
East, th e y brave been
b ro u g h t
A s p e c ie s ca n be native In o n e p a rt o f tlse co u n try, a nd alien,
s o m e tim e s as part o f International d e v e lo p m e n t aid efforts
and even invasive, lis another,
It w a s n o t a n tic ip a te d th a t th e y w o u ld e s c a p e , esta blish w ild
p o p u la tio n s , d e s tro y native ha b itats, native fish a nd o th er
s p e c ie s . A n d It w a s c e rta in ly n o t a n tic ip a te d th a t th e y w o u ld
be aisle to to le ra te salt w a te r to tine e x te n t th e y d o , Tilapia are
n o w s p re a d in g frons o n e river basin to another, c o lo n is in g via
tlse se a (see c a s e s tu d y ois pi 30)
7
bo u nd a rie s, n o t to co u n try, sta te o r o th e r political b o u n d a rie s
to th e US a nd A sia for a q u a cu ltu re , to p ro vid e fo o d , even
Invasional meltdown
It Is d ifficu lt to p re d ic t w h ich sp e c ie s will b e c o m e invasive
(C arcinus m aenas) w e re in tro d u ce d to San F ra n cisco B ay in
S o m e tim e s a s p e c ie s ca n ire p re se n t for a co n sid e ra b le
1 9 8 9 and tlsey arrived in B o d e g a h a rb o u r in 1 9 9 4 , Tlsese alien
length o f tim e at lo w n u m b e rs, lulling hum an o b se rve rs into
c ra b s sele ctive ly eat tlse larger native clanss ratlser th a n tlse
a false s e n se o f se cu rity until c o n d itio n s ch a n g e and b e c o m e
sm aller gens clanss, re d u cin g tlse p o p ulatio n o f native clanss
su ita b le for p o p u la tio n s to e xp a nd , Cine e xa m p le o f this is tine
a nd allow ing tlse alien gens clanss to e xp a n d (see c a s e stu d y
C h in e se m itten erais (E rio che irsin e n sis) w h ic h w a s p re se n t off
on p 27), An a d d e d co m p lic a tio n is ca u s e d by th e life c y c le of
tine sh o re s o f tine U K for a ro u n d 6 0 years w ith o u t n o tice a b le
tlse native clanss. As tlse native clanss g ro w larger th e y ch a n g e
sig n s o f being invasive. T hen a series o f ve ry d ry su m m e rs in
se x frons nsale to fensale, Ely eatiisg tlse larger clanss, tlse cra b s
tine 1 9 9 0 s re d u c e d tine flo w o f rivers in tine so u th o f tine c o u n try
rem o ve tlse re p ro d u ctive ténsales frons tlse systens a nd hasten
allow ing tine c ra b s to settle, re p ro d u c e and bo o m in num ber,
tlse d e clin e o f tlse native clanss. Tisis is a p e rfe ct e xa m p le of
Tine c ra b s travel long d is ta n c e s u p stre a m , fe e d in g on native
'invasional m e ltd o w n ' wlsere tw o in tro d u ce d sp e c ie s interact
s p e c ie s . T h e y a lso b u rro w into stream and river banks leading
to c a u s e d e clin e s in a native sp e cie s
to b a n k co lla p se , British zo o lo g ists fear th a t tine C h in e se m itten
erais c o u ld both e a t a nd o u t-c o m p e te vuln e ra b le fre sh w a te r
s p e c ie s and th a t native crayfish (w hich are a lrea d y in decline)
c o u ld ise a ffe cte d
A n o th e r
e xa m p le
involves
tine
alien
gem
clam
(G em m a
g e m m a ) w h ic h w a s in tro d u ce d frons ea stern US to tlse w e s t
c o a s t via tlse o yste r tra d e in tlse late 1 8 0 0 s, Gens clanss
and tw o native clans sp e cie s (N utricola tantilla and N utricola
co n fusa ) c o e x is te d in B o d e g a h a rb o u r until tlse arrival o f a
isew alien s p e c ie s u p s e t tlse balance, E uropean green cra b s
8
Guilty until proven innocent
N ot all alien
s p e cie s
becom e
invasive.
Tine
pro b le m
is
o c c u r either after a long tim e lag, o r q u ite suddenly, a n y n e w
p re d ictin g w h ic h o n e s will, Even sp e c ie s th a t at first m ay seem
in tro d u ctio n s into tine local e n viro n m e n t sh o u ld be s u b je c t to
'harm less' m ay b e c o m e invasive given tine right ch a n g e in
clo s e scrutiny. C o n sid e rin g tine d e va sta tio n ca u s e d isy th o s e
local c o n d itio n s . This co u ld in clu d e th e in tro d u ctio n o f a n o th e r
alien sp e cie s th a t d o b e c o m e invasive, it is n e c e s s a ry to treat
alien sp e c ie s , enviro n m e n ta l ch a n g e s or o th e r fa c to rs that
all alien sp e c ie s w ith c a u tio n — a n y alien sp e c ie s sh o u ld ise
give it a biological ad va nta g e . B e ca u se su ch ch a n g e s can
co n sid e re d 'guilty u n less proven in n o ce nt'
How are marine species introduced?
U nintentional introductions are those where species enter
Species can becom e invasive by m oving in natural ways
new areas as ‘hitch-hikers’ or ‘stow aw ays’ through trade,
such as sw im m ing or floating where humans have created
travel and transport. They include the m ajor long distance,
artificial connections between areas that were previously
shipping-related causes of introduction:
separated such as:
-
Ballast w a te r transfer, m ainly a ss o c ia te d w ith large ships;
-
C anals
and
-
W a te r dive rsion s c h e m e s
-
Hull fouling, a s s o c ia te d w ith sh ip s as well as ya c h ts and
sm aller crafts
Intentional introductions are those where the transfer
of the organisms was planned. Some alien species are
Un intentional introductions, including overshorter distances
introduced for release into the w ild such as:
can also be associated with many other activities. They
-
Bisln sp e c ie s released to increase local c a tc h e s
can occur as a knock-on effect of intentional introductions.
-
Plants in tro d u ce d for muclflat or d u n e m a n a g e m e n t
Examples include:
-
Boui IÍncj o f buoys
Many alien species are introduced into some form of
-
T ransport on fishing or diving gear
containment, or for a use that does not mean them to be
-
T ransport on p leasure craft or o th e r sm all isoats
released in the wild. But very often such species ‘escape’ or
-
Alien p a th o g e n s in shellfish and o th er a q u acu ltu re
are discarded into the environment. This category includes:
in tro d u ctio n s
-
M ariculture (farm ing o f o yste rs, salm on, e tc
(see c a s e stu d ie s on p 2 0 ,2 8 )
9
-
A q u a riu m use
-
Bive s e a fo o d trad e
-
Bive fish bait trad e
-
S e a w e e d s used in p a cka ging (e.g. o f bait)
Unintentional introductions
In th e 19th century, sh ip p in g c h a n g e :!. Steel hulled ships
w o rld su d s as tlse S outh Pacific or Indian O ce a n islands, hull
re p la ce d w o o d e n hulls and e n g in es rep la ce d sails. O n e o f the
fouling nsay well be a nsore Im portant v e c to r th a n ballast water.
b ig g e s t and m o s t Im portant chi,a n g es w a s th e shift from solid
Paints co n taining trlbutyltln w e re u se d as antlfoullng, b u t are
ballast to using w ater. Ballast Is a n y m aterial u se d In a sh ip to
isow being p h a sed o u t lis nsaisy co u n trie s d u e to enviro n m e n ta l
stabilise It, An e m p ty c a rg o ship m ay co n ta in a lot o f ballast
c o n c e rn s , lis tlse a b s e n c e o f a n thfo u la n ts th a t are as e ffective,
w h ic h Is d u m p e d w h e n c a rg o Is loaded. S olid ballast w a s
It Is likely th a t fouling o f ve sse ls will Increase and th a t nsore
sp e c ie s will be tra n sp o rte d this w a y In future. O rg a n is m s d o
n o t o n ly attach) to tlse hull but also to p ropellers and p ropeller
slsafts, a n ch o rs a nd a n c h o r chains. N either d o e s fouling only
a ffe ct s h ip s — drilling platform s a nd floating clry-clocks can be
eq u a lly a ffe cte d , Even a m p h ib io u s ve h icle s or sea planes can
tra n s p o rt sp e cie s
T ransport w ithin th e sanse c o u n try can a lso c a u s e pro b le m s,
M a n y m arine o rg a n ism s, particularly plants, can to le ra te drying
o u t p e rio d s and rem ain d o rm a n t until c o n d itio n s
Im prove
M oving a snsall Iso,at, fishing ta ckle o r s c u b a g e a r frons one
Island to another, o r frons o n e area o f c o a s t to a n o th e r w ith o u t
c le a n in g It nsay be re sp o n sib le for sp re a d in g an a lready Invasive
a m ajor p a th w a y for m a n y I,ancldaasecl Invasive sp e cie s; the
sp e c ie s further. S o can m oving a m arina p o n to o n frons one
shift to w a te r ballast p ro ve d d isa stro u s for th e m arine w o rld
Isay to th e next w ith o u t s c ra p in g or cle a n in g It first,
Tanks Inside th e hull o f th e sh ip are filled w ith w a te r to w e ig h
It d o w n . This w a te r m ay th e n be released at th e nest po rt of
Huns,an a ctivities Is,ave led to large a m o u n ts o f floating de b ris
call, releasing w ith It a n y o rg a n ism s th a t survived th e journey.
m oving a ro u n d on th e o ce a n surface. O rg a n ism s Is,ave alw ays
D e p e n d in g on c o n d itio n s, es.tr,a w a te r m ay be ta ke n up In
a tta ch e d th e m se lve s to bits o f d e b ris su d s as floating w o o d or
diffe re n t areas s o th e w a te r In any o n e ship's ballast ta n ks
c o c o n u ts b u t th e a m o u n t o f clelsrls Is Increasing a nd It floats
m ay hi,ave c o m e from a n u m b e r o f s o u rce s. Ballast w a te r can
for longer. Plastic pro vid e s an e xce lle n t su rfa ce for o rg a n ism s
co n ta in a h u g e va riety o f o rg a n ism s from m ic ro s c o p ic plankton
to attach) to and It ca n rem ain afloat for years
to 12 c m d o n g fish, The ta n ks th e m se lve s often hi,ave a layer of
s e d im e n t In th e luase w h ich Is c o lo n is e d Isy ye t m ore o rg a n ism s
In 1 8 6 9 tlse S u e z Canal w a s c o m p le te d , Bor tlse first tinse lis
and th e w alls m ay also be co lo n ise d . C o n d itio n s Inside ballast
2(f) million years, tlse M editerranean S e a w a s linked to tlse Red
ta n ks are n o t Ideal for m an y sp e cie s b u t enough) are aisle to
S ea a llow ing sh ip s to travel to tlse M id dle East and b e yond
survive to c a u s e a p roblem , N o w a d a ys, sa m p le s o f ballast
w ith o u t having to navigate a ro u n d tlse Horis o f Africa, Yet m arine
w a te r find an am azing va riety o f life and h u n d re d s o f life form s,
sp e c ie s a lso fo u n d a isew route. Prevailing c o n d itio n s th ro u g h
frons ch o le ra (see c a s e s tu d y on pi 29) and botulism bacteria
tlse ca n a l nseais th a t nsore sp e c ie s travel frons tlse Red Sea
to plankton, Invertebrates a nd fish,
to tlse M editerranean th a n lis tlse otlser direction. Nearly 3 0 0
Ballast w a te r tran sfe r Is
c o n s id e re d th e palmary c a u s e o f In tro d u ctio n s today.
sp e c ie s o f Red S ea and lisclo Pacific origin Is,ave se ttle d and
M an y s p e c ie s attach) to tlse u n d e rsid e o f a v e s s e l— tlse hull —
o n m arine life In th e M ed iterranean, T he jellyfish re sp o n s ib le for
and are tra n s p o rte d va st d ista n ce s, lis sonse regions o f tlse
tlse 'jellyfish) b e lt’ off tlse c o a s t o f Israel Is oise o f tlsens
invaded lis this w a y a nd tlsese sp e c ie s Is,ave Is,ad a large Im pact
Intentional introductions
Fish) and shellfish have been intentionally In tro d u ce d all over
tlsese o rg a n ism s w o u ld n o t ise aisle to survive o u ts id e 'in tlse
th e w o rld for m ariculture,
w ild ' b u t sonse do. O n e o f th e nsost infam ous m arine invaders,
providing fo o d and joins. Tiñere
are tw o m ain d a n g e rs a ss o c ia te d w ith this, S p e cie s th a t are
tlse colei-tole ra n t strain o f tlse tro p ica l s e a w e e d
m o ve d can e s c a p e a nd b e c o m e a th re a t to native sp e cie s,
taxifolia) n o w ca rp e ts large areas o f tlse M ed ite rra n e a n S ea
(Caulerpa
e c o s y s te m fu n c tio n o r livelihoods, P a th o g e ns o r parasites th a t
having e s c a p e d frons tlse O c e a n o g ra p h ic Museums in M o n a c o
m ay be a s s o c ia te d w ith tine s to c k th a t is m o ve d ca n infect
(see c a s e s tu d y on pi 25), Divers aro u n d Florida are being
native as w ell as co m m e rcia l sp e cie s, o r even be a risk to
exposed
hum an health, Tilapia (see c a s e s tu d y on pi 30) and A tlantic
lionfish (Pterois volitans) Tisis sp e c ie s w a s first n o tice d after
salm on (see c a s e s tu d y on pi 2(f)) are both e xa m p le s o f tine
a hurricane in 1 9 9 4 ; it p ro b a b ly e s c a p e d frons an aquarium
first danger. Tiñese sp e c ie s have ineen tra n s p o rte d a ro u n d tine
d e s tro y e d in tlse hurricane,
to
a new
h a z a rd — th e
beautiful
but
p o iso n o u s
w o rld to fish farm s and have e s c a p e d a nd naturalised in m an y
areas c a u sin g d a m a g e to native sp e cie s and habitats, Tine list
o f invasive s p e c ie s in tro d u ce d a c cid e n ta lly w ith m ariculture is
long. M a n y are a s s o c ia te d w ith o yste r m o ve m e n ts su ch as
tine sea sq u irt (Styela clava) w h ic h is p o sin g a m ajor th re a t to
tine shellfish a q u a c u ltu re in d u stry in N e w Zealand, Tine sp e cie s
w a s p ro b a b ly in tro d u ce d w ith im p orts o f Pacific o yste rs from
Asia, It is e s tim a te d th a t 30% o f all in tro d u ce d m arine algal
s p e c ie s w o rld w id e w e re m o ve d a c cid e n ta lly in a sso cia tio n
w ith m ariculture
R ecreational fishing is also to blam e for tine sp re a d o f m an y
invasive s p e c ie s in tine US, Bait w o rm s from M aine on tine
e a st c o a s t are p o p u la r as fishing bait th ro u g h o u t tine c o u n try
and be yo nd , T h e y are c o m m o n ly p a cke d in s e a w e e d w h ich
c o n ta in s m a n y o th e r o rg a n ism s. If th e s e a w e e d is d isca rd e d ,
Tlse rate at w h ich m arine o rg a n ism s are being in tro d u ce d
eith e r tine plant itself or tine o rg a n ism s g ro w in g on it can
w o rld w id e
c o lo n is e n e w areas. Tine snail Littorina sasatillis, tine se a w e e d
v o lu m e s o f trad e and sh ip p in g , as w ell as tlse eve r-in crea sin g
C o d iu m fragile s p p to m e n to s o id e s and tine E uropean green
co n n e c tiv ity o f po rts and harbours, It is n o t su rprising th a t w e
a cce le ra tin g
rap id ly
due
to
tlse
increased
erais (C arcinus m aenas) have all sp re a d this w a y frons tlse e a st
are n o w ca p a b le o f m oving nsore m arine o rg a n ism s a ro u n d tlse
to tlse w e s t c o a s t o f tlse US, Tlse greeis erais is isow sp re a d in g
w o rld in o n e m on tis, tlsan w e u se d to d o in a w h o le century.
further up tlse w e s t c o a s t w ith tlse prevailing cu rre n ts (see ca se
s tu d y on p 27)
Trade in alien s p e c ie s for aquarium use c a n also result in m arine
invasions: nsaisy p e o p le w o rld w id e ke e p e xo tic fish, m arine
plants, invertebrates o r co ra ls in a quarium s, lis nsost ca se s
11
is
Fighting back
—what can be done?
B e c a u s e o f tlse sca le o f tlse p roblem , m arine Invasive sp e cie s
b e yo nd tlse ta rg e t area. It Is also ve ry e a sy for relnvaslon to
sh ould Ise ta c k le d at tlse international and regional level as well
occu r. W o rkin g u n d e r w a te r a d d s an extra level o f com plexity,
as at tlse national and local level. M anaging Invasive sp e cie s lis
Even th o u g h tlsere have b een a fe w su c c e s s fu l e ra d ica tio n s of
tlse m arine e n v iro n m e n t p re se n ts nsaisy nsore ch a lle n g e s than
m arine Invasive sp e cie s, It Is cle a r th a t It Is far te tte r a nd nsore
on land, o n e o f tlse p ro b le m s Is tlse c o n tin u ity o f tlse m arine
c o s t effe ctive to p revent ais Invasion In tlse first p la ce th a n to try
e n v iro n m e n t— It Is alnsost Im po ssib le to seal off an area. A n y
to e ra d ica te tlse sp e c ie s o n c e It Isas ta te n Isold
tre a tm e n t a p p lie d to an area, su ch as poison, Is likely to spread
Options for managing invasive species
Prevention of marine invasions is by far the best option.
-
a sse sse d
bait,
etc)
sh ould
ta ke
p la ce
u n less
tlse
a d d re sse d
(e.g.
th ro u g h
ballast
w a te r
e xch a ng e , tre a tm e n t etc)
No Intentional Intro d u ctio n o f any alien sp e c ie s (e.g. for
m ariculture,
and
-
Provisions sh o u ld be In pla ce for early d e te c tio n a nd rapid
Intro d u ctio n Isas been a u tho rise d and a d e cisio n ois w h e th e r
re s p o n s e so th a t a n e w Incursion ca n be e ra d ica te d before
sucls autho risa tio n can be given Is b a se d on pelor a s s e s s m e n t
It sp re a d s, Baseline surveys, surveillance, m on ito rin g and
c o n tin g e n c y planning are all Im portant,
o f tlse risk o f e v a s iv e n e s s (Including In ca se o f e sca p e)
- U nintentional In tro d u ctio n s o f any alien sp e c ie s sh o u ld be
m inim ised, This m ea n s th a t ve c to rs and p a thw ays (sucls
-
C o m m u n ity
p a rticip a tio n
and
a w a re n e ss
are critical to
prevention
as ballast w a te r transfer, hull fouling etc) need to be Identified,
12
Preventing unintentional
introductions
M o s t o f tlse w o rld 's trad e Is carried o u t Isy ship, cu rre n tly
A t p re se n t th e re Is no international legislation reg a rd in g hull
Involving s o m e 3 5 ,0 0 0 ve sse ls. W ith so m a n y Intro d u ctio n s
fouling,
o c c u rrin g un in ten tio n a lly th ro u g h ballast w a te r and hull fouling,
gro w in g . A n ti-fo ulin g paints p ro te c t ve sse l hulls frons being
a d d re s s in g tlsese tw o p a thw ays Is param ount,
co lo n ise d ,
b u t c o n c e rn a b o u t Its Im po rta nce as a v e c to r Is
usually
b e ca u se
th e y
co n ta in
c h e m ic a ls
th a t
p re ve n t th e juvenile sta g es o f m arine plants a nd anim als frons
International Instrum ents include tlse International C o n ve n tion
settling. W hile th b utyltln -b a se cl paints are being p h a se d out,
for tlse C ontrol and
th e re are various alternative a n ti-fo u lin g paints available th a t d o
and
S e d im e n ts,
M a n a g e m e n t o f S h ip s ’ Ballast W ater
d e ve lo p e d
Isy tlse
International
M aritim e
n o t co n tain TBT, T heir use Is fairly sp e cific, In th a t th e size o f th e
O rga n isa tio n (IMO), This o u tlines p ro c e d u re s for m inim ising
Isoat a nd Its p u rp o se d e te rm in e th e ty p e o f an ti-fo u lin g p ro d u c t
alien s p e c ie s In tro d u ctio n s frons ballast w a te r d isch a rg e w hile
to use. In sp ectio n for fouling can be carried o u t and, w h e re
p ro te c tin g s h ip s ’ sa fe ty a nd will p rovide a uniform , sta n da rd ise d
necessary, th e o rg a n ism s ca n be rem o ve d frons hulls, It Is
regim e for m an a g in g ballast water.
Im portant th a t fouling m aterial d o e s n o t b e c o m e d is lo d g e d Into
th e w a te r co lu m n w h ile cle aning. All fouling m aterial rem oved
R e c o m m e n d e d p ro c e d u re s Involve a vessel transferring ballast
frons th e hulls sh o u ld be d is p o s e d o f either by burning o r burial
w a te r In tlse opeis o ce a n Isefore arriving at Its d e s tin a tio n .
and sh o u ld n o t be clu m pe d Into th e water.
O rg a n ism s p icke d up w ith ballast w a te r lis a p o rt are likely to
Ise a d a p te d to e stu aria e or river c o n d itio n s so th e y will isot
This d o e s n o t o n ly a p p ly to ve sse ls arriving frons foreign
be aisle to survive lis tlse opeis o ce a n If th e y are released
ports. Vessels including snsall recreational Isoats arriving frons
there. T he sh ip th e n refills Its ballast ta n ks w ith w a te r forns th e
d o m e s tic po rts w h e re Invasive m arine sp e c ie s are e sta b lish e d
opeis o c e a n a nd o rg a n ism s p icke d up th e re sh o u ld n o t he
also p o se a high risks M oving e q u ip m e n t sucls as o yste r ca g e s,
aisle to survive In ports a nd harbours, U nfortunately, It Is not
buoys, o r lines th a t have b een In th e w a te r long enough) to
alw ays p o s s ib le for sh ip s to use this m e th o d d u e to safety
g e t fo u le d, can also lead to in tro d u ctio n o r sp re a d o f m arine
Issues, for Instance, In rougis seas. Also, e m p tyin g th e w a te r
Invasives, T here m u st be sufficient a w a re n e ss o f th e risks at
d o e s n o t rem ove th e layer o f s e d im e n t or film on th e w alls
th e local level so th a t individuals k n o w w h a t actio n to ta ke
o f th e ta n ks so nsaisy o rg a n ism s survive even If ballast w a te r
Is tran sfe rre d . S o w h ile o p e n w a te r tran sfe r can co n trib u te
Preventing sp e c ie s travelling th ro u g h ca n a ls Is also te ch n ic a lly
sig n ifica n tly to preventing m arine Invasions, w e ca n n o t rely
po ssib le ,
on It as tlse on ly m easure, Research) Is being u n d erta ke n Into
Instance co u ld Include Inserting a strong saline barrier, or a
m e th o d s o f d e stro yin g m arine o rg a n ism s In ballast w ater, for
lo ck syste m w h e re w a te r Is ch e m ica lly or b io lo g ica lly trea te d
Instance, using sterilisation, o zo n e o r heat. A n o th e r o p tio n Is
to kill any o rg a n ism s present,
th e in tro d u ctio n o f tre a tm e n t plants In po rts w h ich ta le ballast
w a te r frons sh ip s a nd sterilise It Isefore releasing It or returning
It to a n o th e r ship,
13
M a n a g e m e n t o p tio n s w ithin th e S uez C anal for
Preventing invasions
when a species is
introduced intentionally
S o m e international in stru m e n ts a d d re ss tine issue o f invasions
a ccu ra te a s s e s s m e n ts o f tine risks o f using alien species,Tine
th a t o c c u r after a sp e c ie s Inas ineen intentionally in tro d u ce d
International C o u n cil for tine Exploration o f tine S ea's C o d e of
su ch as for a q u acu ltu re , tine aquarium trad e , or sp o rt fishing,
P ra ctice on tine Intro d u ctio n and Transfer o f M arine O rga n ism s
Tiñese ¡include tine C o n ve n tio n on Biological D iversity and tine
is o n e o f th e m o s t co m p re h e n s iv e ¡instruments to help in the
Food and A g ricu ltu re O rga n isa tio n 's C o d e o f C o n d u c t for
re sp o n sib le use o f ¡introduced sp e c ie s b u t is o n ly voluntary.
R e sp o n sib le Fisheries, w h ich d is c o u ra g e s th e use o f invasive
alien s p e c ie s in a q u a cu ltu re (¡including m ariculture) and calls for
Early detection, rapid response
O n c e a s p e c ie s Inas ineen ¡introduced to an area it is im p orta n t
also be carried o u t loy o rg a n isa tio n s or ¡individuals w h o nnay
to lo ca te it a nd ta ke a ctio n q u ic k ly isefore it Inas a c h a n c e to
d e te c t ¡invasions as th e y ca rry o u t o th e r activities. Em ployees
esta blish and spread, This can ise ch a lle n g ing given tine o p e n
in ¡industries th a t have a high risk o f being a ffe cte d , o r peo ple
nature o f tine m arine enviro n m e n t, B ut if an invader is fo u nd
w ith recreational or o th er interests in tine m arine ha b itat can
win ile it is still in a relatively snnall co n ta in a b le area, it nnay ise
fornn ve ry useful n e tw o rks in ta cklin g invasions. M e m b e rs of
e ra d ic a te d if tine re s p o n s e is q u ic k e n o ug h , This is winy surveys
tine pu b lic often k n o w th e ir local area extrennely well and are
are so im portant, T h e y ca n ise s ite -s p e c ific su ch as fo cu ssin g
likely to n o tice any ch a n g e s,
on ports w h e re an alien sp e c ie s nnay ise ¡introduced, o r on areas
o f particular value th a t need tine h ig h e st p ro te ctio n ; sp e cie s
Baseline surveys th a t identify and reco rd w h a t m arine life
s p e c ific (targeting sp e c ie s th a t have ineen fo u n d to p o se tine
p re se n tly exists in a particular location ¡including e x o tic s p e c ie s
h ig h e st risks); or nnore general. S u rve ys can be carried o u t
th a t have a lrea d y b e c o m e e sta b lish e d are also useful. T he y
by n e tw o rk s o r o rg a n isa tio n s th a t have s p e cific resp o n sib ility
ca n be un d erta ke n in all po rts and m arinas w h e re ¡invasions
for d e te c tin g invasive sp e cie s, often fo c u s e d on h ig h -p rio rity
are nnost likely to o ccu r. M on ito rin g is th e n n e e d e d to d e te c t
targets, h ig h -risk locations, or high value reso u rce s. T he y can
a n y n e w arrivals
14
Protect our Waters from
MARINE INVADERS!
Awareness and education
A s well as e n c o u ra g in g tine p u b lic to look o u t for n e w sp e cie s,
areas. M o s t m e m b e rs o f th e p u b lic are rece p tive to req u e sts
e d u c a tio n and a w a re n e ss p ro g ra m m e s sh ould also lue used
such) as this as nnost w o u ld n o t w ish to d e lib e ra te ly harm the
to m axim ise c o m m u n ity Involvem ent, E n co uraging fisherm en
e n viro n m e n t, E d ucation at s ch o o l level Is a lso Im portant, As
to ta ke their e x c e s s bait and w ra p p in g s h o m e at tine e nd
part o f a ca m p a ig n to e d u c a te p e o p le In Hawaii a b o u t th e
o f tine day, o r to clean th e ir b o a ts Isefore m oving th e m to
d a n g e rs o f ¡introduced sp e cie s, a teann d e v e lo p e d colourful
a n o th e r s tre tch o f co a stlin e , will help th e m to play th e ir part In
tra d in g
p re ve n tin g tine Intro d u ctio n or sp re a d o f Invasive sp e cie s. T he
Invasive sp e cie s. The ca rd s w e re d istrib u te d In sch o o ls to
c a rd s
d e p ic tin g
'g o o d '
native
sp e c ie s
and
'bad'
hulls o f recreational y a c h ts travelling long d is ta n c e s sh o u ld
e d u c a te ch ild ren a b o u t th e d a n g e rs o f ¡introduced sp e cie s and
be c le a n e d regularly a nd In d ry clock, E n co u rag in g p e o ple to
to e n c o u ra g e th e m to look o u t for th e se sp e cie s w h e n e v e r
d is p o s e o f their h o m e aquarium c o n te n ts re s p o n s ib ly co u ld
p o ssib le
p re ve n t se a w e e d o r fish sp e c ie s fronn e sta blish in g In n e w
Eradication and control
It Is extrennely difficult to co n tro l a m arine o rg a n ism o n c e It
pi 24), A tte m p ts have b een m a d e to co n tro l It using c h e m ic a ls
b e c o m e s e s ta b lis h e d . To d a te th e re bias o n ly h een one
as w ell as loy m anual rem oval, b u t so far th e re bias heen little
s u c c e s s fu l e ra d ica tio n o f a m arine o rganism ; th e e ra d ica tio n o f
Im pa ct on th e p o p ulatio n (see c a s e s tu d y on p age 25)
th e b la ck stripe d m ussel fronn a m arina In Australia, C h e m icals
w e re u se d to kill eve ryth in g In th e m arina, ¡including all native
In California's San F ra n slsco Bay, 'crabzllla' bias heen pet to
m arine life. T he o p e ra tio n Involved c h e m ica lly trea tin g three
w o r k — a 2 ,5 nn w id e , 6 nn high travelling d e v ic e th a t s c o o p s up
m arinas and 4 2 0 ve sse ls, e n g a g in g 2 7 0 p e o ple (¡including
C h in e se m itten crains on a giant revolving w h e e l w h ile allow ing
sh a rp s h o o te rs to p ro te c t d ivers fronn c ro co d ile s) o ve r four
fish to slip th ro u g h th e m esh o p e n in g s. T he fish are returned
w e e k s at a to ta l c o s t o f 2 ,2 million A ustralian dollars
to th e Bay and th e crains are g ro u n d up as fertiliser. In Hawaii's
Various m e th o d s have b een u se d to re d u ce th e n u m b e rs o f
to rem o ve Invasive alien algae (Gracilaria salicornia) th a t form s
m arine Invasive s p e c ie s In e sta b lish e d p o p u la tio n s b u t w hile
a th ic k m at sm oth e rin g a rel killing coral. In m a n y co u n trie s,
K a n eohe Bay a 's u p e r s u c k e r’ bias heeri d e p lo y e d from a barge
15
th e re nnay be sonne s u c c e s s In low ering th e n u m b e rs, th e se
b iological co n tro l m e th o d s are being Investigated but this a
activities will have to be m aintained ¡indefinitely at gre a t co st.
ve ry c o m p le x a p p ro a ch , frau g h t withi d ifficulties including th e
T he p e rt o f H o b a rt In Tasm ania, Australia bias heen Invaded loy
risk th a t a co n tro l a g e n t m ay e s c a p e a rel a ffe ct n o n -ta rg e t
th e J a p a n e s e sea star (Asterias am urensis, see c a s e stu d y on
sp e cie s
■
f
Galápagos
Libre de Especies Invasoras
Planrss, an ¡mai« s. fhsectos y microorganismos ajenos a Gafép*gos afectan fa salud y
»eunomia de sus habitantes y amenazan 3 Su extraordinarii! oi od iv ers Ida U. Apoyamos le
labor de pobladores, autoridades, guardaparqueS y científicos para lograr un futuro
doodt el hombre y la naturaleza convivan armónicamente.
D P
You can help
It c a n n o t lae o v e rsta te d : Prevention sh o u ld Ise tine to p priority,
a d d re s s e d at all levels, frons International co n v e n tio n s to regional
Efforts sh o u ld Ise s te p p e d up to re d u c e and pre ve n t the
a g re e m e n ts, national planning and at local levels, e n co u ra g in g
Intro d u ctio n o f n e w sp e cie s Into th e m arine e n viro n m e n t
and e m p o w e rin g c o m m u n itie s to Ise Involved, All a s p e c ts of
All m ea n s o f Intro d u ctio n sh ould
Intentional
In tro d u ctio n s,
A
syste m
Ise a d d re s s e d
Including
for e a rly-w a rn ing
and
rapid re s p o n s e Is n e e de d . M arine Invasive s p e cie s sh ould Ise
m a n a g e m e n t sh o u ld Ise b a se d on tlse p re ca u tio n a ry principle,
T his nseaiss th a t aisy alien sp e cie s sh o u ld Ise c o n sid e re d a
potential risk,
Things you can do
Find o u t nsore a b o u t tlse Issue of Invasive marine
Do not e m p ty fish Isowls, co n ten ts o f ornam ental ponds
species and Isow It can a ffect your local area.
or aquaria In natural w aterw ays (and rem em ber that
Keep your eyes opeis and notify relevant authorities or
nsaisy drains In urban areas nsay carry organism s to a
scientists If you notice an unusual animal or plant
river or to the sea)
If you fish, dive or g o boating: c h e c k your gear and
Encourage yo u r family and friends to g e t Involved;
your Isoat and clean It If necessary, so you d o n 't give a
raise aw areness
ride to unw anted organism s,
Encourage m onitoring efforts In your local area.
Do not discard unused Isalt or w e e d that w a s used
Encourage decision m akers to ad d re ss m arine Invasive
as w ra pp in g In places w h e re It co u ld find Its w a y Into
sp ecies as an Ins portant Issue
local w aterw ays or tlse sea
Information on marine
invasive species online
The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) of lUC N ’s
Species Survival Commission (SSC)
GloBallast Partnerships
ISSG alm s to
R e d u ce th e Transfer o f Harmful A q u a tic O rga n ism s In S h ip s ’
re d u ce th re a ts to
tine native s p e c ie s th e y co n tain
natural e c o s y s te m s and
Building
P artnerships
to
A ssist
D eveloping
C ountries
to
Isy Increasing a w a re n e ss
Ballast W ater, o r th e G loB allast Partnerships P roject (GBP)
o f Invasive alien sp e cie s, and o f w ays to prevent, co n tro l or
helps vulnerable d e ve lo ping states and regions to Im plem ent
e ra d ica te them , ISSG also p ro d u c e s th e n e w sle tter 'Allen', and
sustainable, risk-b a se d m e ch a n ism s for tine m a n a g e m e n t and
m aintains a listserver.
co n tro l o f s h ip s ’ ballast w a te r and se d im e n ts to m inim ize tine
http://w w w .issg.org
a d ve rse Im pacts o f a q u a tic Invasive sp e cie s transferred by
ships
ISSG m an a g e s th e G lobal Invasive S p e cie s D atabase w h ich
http://globallast.im o.org/
alm s to Increase a w a re n e ss a b o u t Invasive alien sp e cie s and
to facilitate effective prevention and m a n a g e m e n t activities
http://w w w .issg.org/database
IUCN Global Marine Programme
lU C N ’s G lobal M arine F’rogrannnne fo c u s e s on eight Inroad
th e m e s, o n e o f w h ich Is m anaging m arine alien Invasive sp e cie s
The Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP)
A ctivities Include field p ro je cts on d e te ctio n and m a n a g e m e n t of
G ISP Is an International partnership w ith th e aim o f co n se rvin g
biodiversity and sustaining livelihoods by m inim ising th e spread
and Im pa ct o f Invasive sp e cie s, GISP p rovides s u p p o rt to the
Im plem entation o f Article 8(h) o f th e C o n ve n tion on Biological
m arine alien Invasive sp e cie s, ca p a c ity building and a w areness
raising, as w ell as po licy work: to stren g th e n
International
regulations to m an a g e m arine sp e cie s Introductions
http://w w w .iucn.org/m arine
Diversity and bias co n trib u te d extensively to th e k n o w le d g e and
a w a re n e ss o f Invasive s p e cie s th ro u g h th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a
range o f p ro d u c ts and publications,
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
T he C o n ve n tion on Biological D iversity se ts co m m itm e n ts for
http://w w w .gisp.org
m aintaining th e w o rld 's biological diversity. T he C o nvention
e sta blish es th re e m ain goals: co n se rva tio n o f biological diversity,
Invasive Species Information Node
Biological Information Infrastructure
The
Invasive S p e cie s
Inform ation
Node
of
the
National
su stainable use o f Its co m p o n e n ts , and fair and eq u itab le
sharing o f th e benefits from th e use o f g e n e tic reso u rce s
provides
links to
Invasive sp e c ie s d a ta so u rce s Including a ca ta lo gu e o f Invasive
alien sp e c ie s Inform ation syste m s, d a ta b a se s and da tase ts
A rticle 8h o f th e C o n ve n tion calls on parties to prevent the
Introduction of, co n tro l or e ra d ica te th o s e alien sp e cie s w h ich
threaten e co syste m s, habitats or sp e cie s; and several Plans o f
W o rk u n d e r th e C B D specifically m ention Invasive sp e cie s
http://invasivespecies.nbii.gov/dbases.htm l
http://w w w .biodiv.org
17
Case studies
The zebra
mussel
billion dollar
meltdown
The zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) is native to tire Caspian and Black Sea and tire Sea
of Azov, It Is a freshwater species bi.it Is Included here as It Is a graphic exam ple of tire dam age
that cari be caused by air Invasive species, Carried to North Am erica Iir ballast water, It Is now
one c>f tire m ost Infamous exam ples c>f biological Invasion, Tire species Is now established Iir
tire UK, W estern Europe, Canada air d tire US, Iir tire US tire mussel Iras spread through all tire
major river basins east of tire Rocky Mountains, Zebra m ussels multiply rapidly—one female
cari produce several million eggs a year arid they can cover airy surface, even each other,
Tire mussel co m p e te s withi Zooplankton for food and Interferes withi native molluscs, often
suffocating or starving therm
Tire devastating Im pact of tire zebra mussel Is (dearly dem onstrated ¡ir tire American Great
Lakes where It was Introduced unintentionally ¡ir tire trrlrd-19 80s
It Iras sm othered natural
e cosystem s and altered tire w ater conditions, severely affecting fisheries, It Iras also cleared tire
way for large-scale Invasion by other alien species, leading to a situation known as Invasional
m eltdown', Tire mussel causes a large am ount of (damage to Infrastructure, Between 1989 arid
2000, tire financial (damage Incurred Iir tire US Is estim ated at between U 8 $ 7 50 million arid
US$ 1 billion, Tire econom ic, social arid environmental effects were so dram atic that Iir 1990
tire US Introduced tire first national legislation ori ballast water,
C>ne of tire concerns surrounding tire zebra mussel Is tire ease withi which It spreads, It was
Introduced between continents arid am ong tire Great Lakes Iir tire ballast w ater of ocean-going
vessels. Introduction to smaller lak.es Is likely to have taken place by overland transport, on boat
hulls, anchors arid trailers. Larvae may be transported ori (divers' wetsults, Iir scientific sampling
equipm ent or during fislr stocking, Tire spread within North Am erica Iras also been very rapid
(dire to downstream transport cf planktonis larvae. It Is thought that even du cks could transport
larvae ¡ir their feathers,
There are several ways to remove m ussels from Iirtested w ater ¡irtak.es or on fouled m an-m ade
surfaces but none c>f tírese m ethods w ork for control Iir tire wild. It Is therefore c>f param ount
Im portance to prevent further unintentional spread, For long-distance travel, exchanging ballast
w ater In tire open ocean should reduce tire risks o f introduction, C om m unity participation is
Important to kelp prevent Invasions, ensuring that boats, trailers arid equipm ent are cleaned If
they are m oved from one body of water to another, Awareness cam paigns can play a critical
role Iir m anaging this species,
18
Arctic invasion
the giant
red king crab
Ecologists arid fishermen in Norway are warning of tine threat posed by Invaders advancing from
Russia withi alarming speed along tine coast of N orw ay—tine giant red king crab (Paralithodes
camtschaticus).
Tine species Is native to tine north Pacific around tine Kam chatka Peninsula of Siberia, south
as far as Hokkaido In northern Japan and eastw ards along tine Aleutians tow ards Alastra, It
is a voracious omnivore eating large quantities of any edible pilant or animal matter it finds
including fish eggs and other crabs. It takes about 10 years to mature, may live for 3 0 years
and can reach a weight of 10 kg (22 lbs) and a size of 1,5 nn (4'9"), It Inas no natural predators
in Europe,
In 1960, Soviet econom ists approved tine introduction of tine crab to Increase tine catch levels
of local fisheries, Crabs were caught on Russia's Pacific coast, transported overland, and
released into tine Barents Sea, For about tw o (decades nothing m uch changed, bint then, In tine
late 1980s, crabs began to spread to tine W est and since 1992 tine species Inas occurred In
significant num bers In Norwegian waters. It Inas since reached tine Svalbard Islands and Is now
spreading south clown tine Finnmark coast of Norway, Tine crab Is predicted to eventually reach
as far south as Portugal and, as of 2006, it had reached tine Lofoten Islands,
Tine crab Inas caused serious problem s for local fisheries along tine Barents Coast; It kills
cornrnerclally-valuable fish and (darns and (damages fishing nets. However, som e people have
started catching tine crabs and turned them Into a lucrative source of Incom e— live crabs are
exported to exclusive restaurants In London,
But tine ecological im pacts of tine crab are not fully known, As a result, while affected fishermen
and environm entalists have been expressing concern about tine growing num bers and spread
(:>f tine crab, those withi a com m ercial interest in It point out that linere is no absolute proof that
tine alien Png crab Is causing widespread ecological (damage.
Unfortunately, If linere is one lining that we should have learned from biological invasions
worldwide, It Is that absence c>f proof is not proof of absence, If we wait until an introduced
species Is clearly invasive, it is then too late to clc> anything about It, Tints is winy alien species
m ust be treated withi tine precautionary approach: every alien species needs to be m anaged as
if it is potentially invasive, until convincing evidence indicates that It presents no such threat,
In tine case of the Png crab, further spread should be prevented, Norwegian and Russian
authorities have agreed that crabs w est of 26 (degrees E (the Norwegian North (Tapie) are under
Norway's national managem ent, Norway encourages the catching of crabs w est of the North
(Tape to try to stop further spread, However, given that com m ercial crab fisherm en operate In
the areas of leighi crab (density, rather than at the lower (density 'expansion fro n t', It remains to be
seen how effective these crab fisheries will be in minimising further spread,
On the run
Atlantic salmon
The Atlantic salm on (Salmo salar), native to tine Atlantic; Ocean starts life in freshwater lakes
and rivers. It is only as It m atures that It m igrates to tine ocean w here It can grow to about 9 leg
Salmon are often fished for sport, particularly In Europe, and are one c>f tine m ost cornrnonlyeaten fish worldwide, W hen tints species began to be shipped around tine world for aquaculture,
it created jo b opportunities and brought econom ic benefits. But there have also been negative
effects including pollution from fiski farming and im pacts on native species through escape and
hybridisation, disease transm ission and com petition, Atlantis salm on are now found as far afield
as Australia, ['-Jew Zealand and Chile as well as on tlse W est C oast of tlse US and Canada,
Historically tlse five species of wild, native salm on on tlse Pacific co a st played an im portant
role In defining tlse Pacific Mortis W est and Alaskan character and economy, However, darns,
urbanisation and deforestation took their toll, and tlse great Pacific salm on runs are a thing
of tlse past lis many areas, Tlse US National Marine Fislseries Service Isas listed som e c>f tlse
isative salm on species as threatened, As tlse runs oí wild salmon declined, price increases and
technological im provem ents m ade salm on farming a feasible and econom ically viable option
aisd farming c>f tlse native Pacific salm on begais in tlse 1970s in tlse Pacific Northwest (bist not
iis Alaska)
lis tlse late 1980s,, instead of farming isative species, salm on farm s in Britisls Colum bia (Canada)
arid W ashington State (US) begais to im port Atlantic salm on from tlse Canadian east co a st arid
Europe, While som e c>f tlsese traissfers were within Canada (east co a st to w est coast), tlsey
nevertheless constitute ais introduction c>f ais alien species, because tlsey Involved crossing a
huge ecological boundary tlsat tlse fiski would isot Isave beeis able to croes ois their own,
It could be asked wlsy It matters tlsat tlse Atlantic salm on Is ais aliéis species wiseri salmon
aquaculture represents a large part of food exports arid creates jobs, It was eveis thought
tlsat tlse farm ed salm on would reduce tlse fishing pressure on tlse already beleaguered native
salmon, Tlse reality however, Is tlsat tlse large supply c>f farm ed salm on to tlse world market
resulted in a drop lis price, and in response, com m ercial fishermen declared tlsat tlsey Isaoi to
increase ca tch es c>f isative salm on to maintain tlseir income, Farmed Atlantic salm on are otteri
grown lis large pens erected lis natural w ater bodies, Teiss c>f thousands c>f tlsens are released
iisto Pacific coastal waters, each year, either accidentally or by tlse deliberate release of fiski tlsat
are deem ed too small. Tisis massive 'biological pollution' and tlse threat tlsat it constitutes for
isative Pacific salm on Is a major concern,
Atlantic; Salmon are now regularly found In tlse wild lis tlseir alien range: 7 ,8 33 adults were
caught In Britisls Colum bia lis tlse year 2 0 0 0 by sport, research or com m ercial fislseries. Sexually
mature Atlantic; salm on are com m only found even as far Mortis as Alaska, In 1998, tlse first
confirm ation carne (from Britisls Columbia} tlsat tlse alien salm on could also spaw n lis tlse wild
Wild juvenile Atlantic; salm on In tlseir native range are very aggressive, Tlse fingerlings produced
from spawning lis tlseir alien range on tlse Mortis Am erican W est co a st may be tlse greatest tlsreat
to native salmon through com petition withi native juveniles, as well as through predation on tlse
native pink salm on and churn salm on fry,
20
The Alaskan Departm ent of Fiski and Garne now considers wild Atlantic salmon a serious threat
tc> tine State's native Pacific salm on species, It would like to see salmon farming limited to land
based farming and storage instead of marine pens, a ban on releasing Atlantic salm on Into tine
wild and a com m itm ent not to allow farming further north than tine present locations In British
Columbia, But tine Departm ent has no jurisdiction in British 'Columbia or W ashington State and
those regions cannot stop salmon from crossing tine political boundaries, Effective invasive
species m anagem ent relies on cooperation across political boundaries,
Tine snowflake coral (Carijoa riisei) is a soft coral also known as branched pipe coral or orange
soft coral, It o ccu rs naturally In tine W estern Atlantic and tine Caribbean, from Florida to Brazil, It
was first reported In Hawaii in 1972 bi.it It is not known exactly how it spread,
Snowflake corals are voracious feeders that consum e large quantities of Zooplankton and can
out-cornpete tine more desirable native species for food, Reproducing rapidly, tine coral can
outgrow or overgrow existing life-forrns, It can attach Itself to alm ost any hard surface including
those w here It is not w elcom e such as natural com m unities c>f corals and shellfish, metal,
pilastre and concrete structures, as well as artificial reefs, that are im portant for recreational
clivers. Consequently, tine snowflake coral Inas rapidly becom e a serious pest, seriously affecting
Hawaii's ecology and economy,
Not so soft
the snowflake coral
f
In favourable conditions, tine coral Is capable of explosive growth, occupying any available
space clown to depths of 120 nn In 2001, a survey off Maui revealed that tine coral had
sm othered up to 90% of black: corals which are harvested commercially,
W hen It was, first reported, tine snowflake coral was thought to be benign and little attention was
paid to It bi.it now it is regarded as tine m ost invasive of tke 287 non-native marine invertebrates,
in Hawaii, It Inas caused enorm ous dam age to tine ecosystem and seriously threatens tine US$
3 0 million annual revenue from sales of coral jewellery and souvenirs, No practical m ethod of
controlling It Inas been found so far.
The cornb jelly (Mnem iopsis leidyi) Is a carnivorous predator that reaches 10 orri in length,
eating all form s c>f Zooplankton Including fiski eggs and larvae, disrupting tine food chain c>f
tine areas It Inas Invaded, Cornb jellies, or ctenophores, superficially resem ble jellyfish bint are
biologically quite different and belong to a different phylum, Originally from tine Atlantic estuaries
c>f tine Am ericas where Its abundance Is restricted by native predators and parasites, It tolerates
an extremely wide range of temperature and salinity, Cornb jelly populations follow 'boom and
bust' cycles and can reach very high densities.
In tine early 1980s, tine cornb jelly was accidentally Introduced via ship ballast water to tine Black
Sea, It was also Introduced Into tine Caspian Sea via tine ballast w ater of oil tankers. In Its new
predator-free habitat, tine jellyfish wreaked havoc on tine entire ecosystem of tke Blad-: Sea, Tke
situation was m ade worse by nutrient and other pollution, By 1992, tke annual losses caused
by drops In com m ercial ca tch es of m arketable fiski were estimated at least US$ 2 4 0 million,
Black Sea disaster
the com b jelly
v x
Tke cornb jelly's proliferation Inas had a cascading effect through all levels of biodiversity—
even predatory fiski and dolphins have disappeared, Fiski sto cks In tke Black: Sea and Sea of
Azov Inave suffered from tke cornb jelly eating eggs and larvae. Im pacts on tke Caspian Sea
ecosystem were felt quicker and greater tlnan In tke Black: Sea, By 2001, repercussions were
felt at all levels—even tke top predator, tke Caspian seal was affected
In a strange turn of events, In 1997, another Invader, ¡incidentally another cornb jelly, Beroe
ornata was found In tke north-eastern Black Sea, It feeds on M nem iopsis leidyi and caused a
dram atic fall In their number, helping tke Black sea ecosystem to recover, Improved conditions
Inave been seen for Zooplankton, phytoplankton, dolphins and fiski as well as fiski eggs and
larvae, It Is possible to use Beroe ovata as a biological control for M nem iopsis leidyi. However,
using an alien species for biological control Is a last resort, given that It carries Its own risks. In
any case, deliberately ¡introducing sucki species should only be considered after thorough risk:
analysis that looks at all tke co sts and benefits—Including environmental o re s,
Tke seaweed Undaria pinnatifidia (also known as wakarne or Japanese kelp) Is a native of
Japan, China and Korea w here It Is harvested for food, Growing up to 3 nn In length, tke
seaweed tolerates a wide range of conditions, although It prefers colder waters. Undaria cari
grow on any hard surface, Including rope, pylons, buoys, boat hulls, bottles, floating pontoons
and pilastre. It can also Inhabit a wide range of natural surfaces and grow on tke shells of
abalóme, bivalves and Invertebrates, and on other seaweeds, Undaria may form dense forests,
22
Undaria
killer seaweed
9 *
fc -
cornpetirig withi native species for space and light and often outcornpeting tiaern especially
where there are no large native seaweeds. In ['-Jew Zealand, It Iras been nicknam ed 'g o ise of
the seas' because the dam age It cices can be as severe as that caused by gorse, a major
terrestrial plant pest,
Undaria was Intentionally Introduced Into Brittany, France for com m ercial use and was then
recorded in natural com m unities In the Ule Spain and Argentina, It was also unintentionally
Introduced Into Australia, New Zealand and Italy, Unintentional Introduction can be via ballast
w ater or sh ip s’ hulls, aquaculture and fisheries activities and the live food trade.
The effects of Undaria Invasion are far-reaching, The species can Interfere withi marine farming
by attaching to cages, or ropes, Increasing labour and harvesting co sts and either slowing the
growth of, or displacing the farmed species, By Infesting the underside of vessels, Undaria
significantly decreases their efficiency In the water, adding to operating and m aintenance
costs,
The best way to manage Undaria as withi cither Invasive species, Is to prevent Introduction and
new Infestation, Because Undaria spreads freely by m icroscopic spores eradication Is difficult,
but 'san be possible through sustained effort,
An example of early detection and successful rapid response co m e s from the rem ote New
Zealand Chatham Islands, In 2 0 0 0 a fishing boat which had been Infested by Undaria sank,
The ["-Jew Zealand Ministry of Fisheries ordered the vessel to be m oved (using Its pow ers under
the Biosecurity Act) bi.it bad weather prevented salvage attem pts, It was then decided to use
new techniques to eradicate the seaweed from the hull, The hull was heat-treated to UII the
m icroscopic stage of undaria, Plywood boxes withi foam seals, were attached to the hull by
magnets, Electric elem ents (powered by a diesel generator on the surface support vessel) Inside
the boxes heated the seawater to 70:,C for 10 minutes, withi a flame torch used for Inaccessible
areas. It took clivers, four week's to com plete the treatment, but a monthly m onitoring program m e
over three years. Indicates the eradication has been successful, The Chatham Islands' shoreline
has been surveyed regularly for undaria and no plants, leave been found,
M onterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary off the co a st of California is working to fight off Undaria
which bias already Invaded nearby M onterey Harbour, Undaria was seen as a potential threat
to the sanctuary's native kelp forests, State and sanctuary officials launched a formal Undaria
m anagem ent program m e In O cto b er 2002, This Involved a team of volunteer clivers, removing
Undaria manually from harbour clocks and pilings, withi research volunteers collecting data on
Undaria locations, So far, It appears that the Undaria Is keeping pace withi the eradication effort,
probably because spores are being carried beyond the confines of the harbour, It Is recognised
that eradication Is not possible because even If all Undaria were rem oved from Monterey
Harbour, there are no m echanism s In place to prevent réintroduction by vessels, entering from
other Infected harbours, However, ongoing m anagem ent of the existing population can reduce
the rate of spread,
23
he large yellow aeci purple Japanese starfish (Asterias amurensis) is another ot those attractive
creatures that appear harm less but can leave disastrous co n se qu e n ce s when they Invade
new habitats, The species Is native to Japan, northern China, Korea, Russia and the far North
Pacific, It Is thought that Introduction of the species In Tasmania (Australia) could leave beeie
as larvae through ballast w ater or as a fouling on ships from Japan, lie 1995 the density lie the
Tasmanian Derwent estuary was, found to be the highest anywhere In the world (1,100 per mb)
An estim ated 3 0 million Individuals may be present there,
Tlefs voracious predator eats anything It can find tleat Is no longer than one of Its own arms, (up
to 5 0 orri), It Is especially fond of .shellfish, crabs, sea-urchins, cither starfish, fish eggs, and sea■squlrts and can d e tect and cllg-out prey that Is burled In sand. The starfish has, since Its arrival
In Tasmania, becom e the dom inant Invertebrate predator In the Den/vent Estuary, The native
sea star Coscinasterias muricata Is unable to com pete In num ber and Is under great threat
Trouble Down
Under
Japanese
starfish
frorn the foreign Invader, Aquaculture farms, Including mussel ropes, oyster trays, scallop lines,
and salm on cages, which may provide easily accessible prey, can also be threatened by the
Japanese starfish, although m uch less, so when suspended rnlcl water.
No practical m ethod Is known to eradicate this species after It Iras, becom e established,
Physical removal by clivers, Iras, only Iraci limited su cce ss w here Infestation was, sporadic ever
time and Iraci a density of less, tiran 2 per mb bi.it diver collection as a control m ethod for large
populations Is not effective. In May 2000, com m unity clivers. In Hobart (Tasmania) collected
2 1 ,0 0 0
Individuals which was, estimated to be ju st 5% of tire starfish population Iir tire dock:
area. Removal by hand, by dredging or withi traps, have also not been effective. Netting and
com m ercial harvesting (for grinding Into fertiliser) have drawn limited success,
Sorne species could be used for biological control of tire Japanese seastar and tire feasibility
and safety of using them Is being examined, Tire only practical defence against tire Japanese
starfish Invasion Is continual vigilance at all potential points of entry, and rapid reaction If air
Introduction occurs, To maximise prevention of further spread, Information about tiria, species
Iras, been distributed throughout coastal Australia to educate tire com m unity and encourage
tire reporting of sightings, Iir New Zealand, legislation Iras, been enacted to prevent discharge
of ballast water that Iras, been taken frorn tire Derwent Estuary and Port Plrllllp Bay during tire
seastar s spawning season,
Tire Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) also known as tire blue mussel or bay mussel
Is, a native of tire Mediterranean co a st and tire Black and Adriatic Seas,, Dark blue or brown to
alm ost black In colour, It Is generally between 5 -8 orri In length bi.it Iras, been known to grow to
15 orri, Tire mussel Is dispersed unintentionally In ballast water and by fouling ships hulls, and
Is, now well established In temperate regions around tire globe, Including southern Africa, north­
eastern Asia and North America, In Japan and China It Is widely cultivated for food,
24
Mussling in
The Mediterranean mussel is highly tolerant and can survive on surfaces ranging from exposed
rocks to sandy bottom s, This invasive species appeared in South Africa in tine 1 9 7 0 s —its
arrival was thought to be unintentional, through shipping, O nce established, tine mussel can
expand its range by up to 5 krn a year. In South Africa mussel larvae disperse withi tine speed
and direction of surface currents, Tine mussel Inas displaced several native mussel species from
their habitats, reproducing m uch quicker than tine indigenous species, It Inas also invaded tine
Pacific co a st of tine US bint because of tine similar appearance of tine blue mussel and native
mussels, changes occurred undetected for several decades. It appears to out-cornpete its
close relative, tine native Mytilus trossulus, in sites withi warm er water of more constant salinity
(sucki as In San Francisco Bay) and it sm others another native mussel, Mytilus californianus, in
wave-protectecl areas, in southern California, Hybridisation withi native species Inas also been
reported from som e areas, such as Oregon,
Unintentional introductions could be better prevented through ballast water managem ent. In
sorne areas, a new technique Is used in the aquaculture industry to reduce the risk of invasion,
M ussels are manipulated to have three or four sets of chrom osom es, which m akes them
sterile, thereby reducing the risk of wild populations establishing, However, tine m ethod is not
perfectly safe as m ussels may revert to 'normal' and escape and spread,
M ost caulerpa species are attractivedooking algae. In the late 20th century, the species
Caleurpa taxifolia becam e an international favourite as the aquarium trade grew throughout the
world
However, an escaped 'aquarium strain' of tine species proved to be ecologically and
econom ically disastrous when it invaded locations as far apart as Australia, the US and the
Mediterranean, The seaweed Inas already achieved infamy as o re of the 100 of the w orld’s
w orst invasive species,
Cine of tine w orst cases of Invasion happened In the Mediterranean: a major public aquarium
In M onaco obtained a Caleurpa taxifolia hybrid from dealers w ho had probably sourced their
original sto ck from northern Australia, Soon small pieces of the new seaweed were released
into the wild via the aquarium w astew ater system. It rapidly covered 13,000 hectares of seabed
along 190 krn of coast, By 2001, it had hitch-hiked to many other popular tourist harbours
around the Mediterranean on boat anchors or fishing nets.
Caulerpa taxifolia can Invade many types of seabed, rnucl through sand to hard reck, irrespective
of other llfe-forrns, It starts, its invasion by over-growing and shading tine resident seaw eeds
or sea-grasses and goes on to affect sea animals such as fish and lobsters which rely on
the existing native ecosystem for food, Animals that cannot m ove away quickly, for example
shellfish, are sim ply sm othered, The aquarium strain of Caulerpa taxifolia can cover the entire
seabed in a dense mat, leaving no space for other species, Tine Invasive seaweed protects
itself frorn being eaten by sea urchins or fiski by producing a toxin, Tine few species that can eat
the seaw eed such as Mediterranean bream can accum ulate toxins In their flesh to an extent
that m akes them unfit for consum ption by humans, This seaweed also Interferes withi various
e conom ic Interests, A solid carpet of o re type of seaweed is of little interest to recreational
clivers, snorkellers or tourists, Com mercial fishermen are affected through reduced catch levels,
caused by dam age to fiski habitat, and through entangling of nets and boat propellers,
25
Smothered
by seaweed
A relatively small Infestation In Southern California was eradicated by cc>\/erlng tire seaweed
withi plastic sheets and poisoning It withi chlorine; other treatm ents can be used, Tire costs
of tire Southern Californian eradication were $U S 2 ,3 3 million In 2 0 0 0 - 0 1 , for control and
monitoring, withi air ongoing annual surveillance co st of $U S 1,2 million until 2004, Application
of coarse sea salt at a concentration of about 5 0 kg/nr2 Iras been used wltlr m oderate su cce ss
In Australia, eradicating non-native Caulerpa taxifolia frorn an area of alm ost 5 ,2 0 0 mb In one
case, although In another Instance, an area of 3 ,0 0 0 mb show ed a reduction In seaweed
density but not a full eradication, Croatia attem pted eradication by covering tire seaweed wltlr
plastic sheeting, This was reasonably successful, bi.it tire area Involved was only 512 rn2.
Eradication Iras also occurred In South Australia and New South Wales, Australia, and manual
removal by scuba clivers was successful In eradicating a small patch of Caulerpa taxifolia In tire
French Mediterranean, However, tírese m ethods are very resource Intensive and If even a tiny
piece of tire weed Is missed, tire species can easily rednvacle.
Tire fishhook w ater tiea {Cercopagis pengoi) Is native to Southern Europe, more specifically to
tire Caspian, Blad-: and Azov Seas and small coastal lakes In that area. Tire species can tolerate
a wide range of salinity and temperature, not surprising that It Iras becom e Invasive In fresh water,
such as tire Great bak.es of tire US and Canada, as well as In marine environments, such as In
tire Baltic Sea, Tire w ater tiea travels, widely using tire same vector as so many other devastating
Invaders: ballast water, Tire water flea's, small size— less tiran 2 rrrrrr — belles. Its potential to cause
a huge am ount of damage.
Small flea
big impact
One of tire first Im pacts of tire fishhook water tiea Is tire clogging of nets and fouling of boats,
In North America, tire water fleas, were first discovered Iir bake Ontario Iir July 1998 arid their
rapid advance through tire lakes, was easy to follow: In August 1998, Canadian anglers began
reporting that gelatinous blobs, consisting cT hundreds c>f tírese fleas, were fouling their fishing
Hires arid jamming their gear. Within a month, tírese effects, were reported all ever Lake Ontario,
Trading vessels, or pleasure craft probably carried tire species frorn Lake Ontario to Lake Michigan
as by mlcl-September, fouling was reported frorn there as well. Wir ¡le for sport fishers this Is air
26
annoyance, for comm ercial fishermen it is financially damaging. In tine Baltic; Sea losses reported
frorn just one tisii farm In the eastern Gulf of Finland were at least US $ 5 0 ,0 0 0 each year, clue
to fouling of fishing equipment.
T ie w ater tiea affects native biodiversity both directly and Indirectly, Harmful algal bloom s can
o ccu r because t ie water tiea eats t ie planktonic size native 'grazers' that would keep such
bloorns in control, By eating Zooplankton, t ie water tiea rechices t ie food supply for larger
species such as tisii, potentially creating a 'bottleneck' to t ie productivity of t ie tisii community,
Tills tiny creature can disrupt an entire food web and affect w ater quality,
M easures to avoid further spread of t ie species Include ballast water exchange to lower
t i e chances of further Introductions, At t ie local level, avoiding t ie further spread of already
Introduced populations is also critical and t ie following measures can contribute: balt or bad­
water should not be released Into a water body: boats and equipm ent should be w a s te d witti
hot w ater (more than 40':'C), w a s te d witti a high-pressure w ater spray, or boats and equipm ent
should be com pletely dried out for at least five clays before re-entering a w ater body; motors,
bait b uckets and fishing gear should be thoroughly drained and cleaned
An adult green crab (Carcinus m aenas) Is about 6 -7 crn long but can grow larger. Green crabs
can out-cornpete and out-rnanoeuvre other crabs witti ease. They feed on many seashore
organisms, particularly bivalve m olluscs such as darns, oysters, and m ussels and small
crustaceans. Green crabs are quieter, more dexterous, and can open shells more easily than
other crab species,
Green crab
a crushing blow
Green crabs are native to Europe and were first transported to t ie US Inside small tunnels
bored by stilpw orrns into w ooden ships, Green crabs were noticed on the east co a st of North
Am erica In 1817 and now o ccu r frorn Nova Scotia to Virginia, The crab is believed to be at
least partly responsible for t ie destruction in t ie 1950s of t ie soft-shelled darn fisheries which
affected thousands of people, Catches fell frorn 14,5 million pounds in 1938 to 2,3 million
pounds in 1959, a period during which t ie range of t ie green crab extended Into t ie darn
fishery area.
27
In 1989 crab s frorn tine east co a st population were found In California. They laid low1for a while
in their new habitat as population num bers built up, then rapidly expanded northwards, Invasion
sites were found In Oregon In 1997, W ashington In 1998 and British Colum bia In 1999, It Is
believed that tine green arab could eventually extend along tine entire Pacific co a st c>f North
Am erica frorn M exico to Alaska,
Green crabs have Invaded South Africa, and have also been recorded In Australia In Tasmania
and Victoria, Brazil, Panama, Madagascar, the Red Sea, Pakistan, Sri banka, Myanmar, Japan,
Patagonia and Hawaii, although It Is not known yet w hether they are Invasive In all tiñese
locations,
Oysters
international
travellers
and invaders
Shellfish, especially oysters, have been Intentionally Introduced all over tine world for rnariculture,
proviclirig food and work, Tine Introduced oyster Itself can becom e a threat to native biodiversity
or livelihoods biut It can also carry pathogens or parasites that may Infect and dam age native
and com m ercial species, or even be a human health risk:.
Various species of oyster have been m oved around tine world for tine last five to six centuries
with various Impacts, Tine Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), while farm ed In som e areas In
Australia, Is considered a pest species In others, Similarly, In Tine Netherlands, this species
Is used for rnariculture, bi.it In tine W adden Sea where It Inas, established In tine wild' It Is seen
as, a potential ecological threat because of Its, capacity to generate solid reefs, and com pete
with native species, It also causes econom ic damage, fouling and clogging Intake pipes and
interfering wltlr pow er station c o d in g systems,.
Many organism s have travelled wltlr oysters and have been unintentionally ¡introduced, Including
tine ciysfer disease MSS (Haplosporidium nelsoni). Tine disease agent was, originally given tine
name MSX for "multinucleated sphere X", o r unknown). O ther pests have also travelled withi
ciysfers, threatening native species as, well com m ercial oyster cultures,. Tine sea .squirt Styela
clava Is, posing a major threat to tine shellfish aquaculture Industry In New Zealand, It Is, thought
to have been Introduced wltlr Imports of Pacific oysters frorn Asia, Human diseases, sucki as,
cholera can be transported wltlr ¡introduced species, establish In local shellfish populations In
tine new area, and then Infect humans,
Intentional introductions of alien species sucki as, oysters can create risks but they can also
have desirable effects, sucki as, enhancing feed security or creating jo b s through aquaculture,
Many species that are ¡introduced elsewhere will not becom e Invasive at all. In other cases, risks
posed can be kept at acceptably low levels, through specific m anagem ent measures,. Tine trick
Is, to Increase cu r ability to use alien species that are beneficial while also minimising tine risks,
This is why an intentional introduction sucki as for oyster farming, should only be authorised
after a prior risk analysis, Inas, roiled out likely ¡evasiveness, or Inas, been able to establish effective
m anagem ent measures,.
28
Spartina
an insidious
invader
The com m on cord grass Spartina anglica, also known as rice grass, tow nsends grass or simply
spartina, inhabits salt marshes, w etlands and estuarlne mudflats, Spartina anglica Is a hybrid
between England's native St maritima and St alterniflora, which was Introduced to England
frorn tine Atlantic; seaboard c>f tine US, St anglica Inas a high m etabolic rate which leads to large
am ounts c>f organic matter entering tine ecosystem and is a m ajor source of nutrients entering
marine ecosystem s,
Spartina Inas been widely planted for com m ercial purposes such as coastal protection, sand
dune stabilisation and land reclamation, Intentional introductions for this purpose have taken
place in tine UK and New Zealand, Tine grass Inas also spread through unintentional Introductions,
via birds, floating grains and ship ballast water. Tine spartina grasslands that establish as a result
provide a food source and habitat for many creatures, bint usually lead to tine exclusion c>f native
pilant species and tine loss of feeding habitat for marine birds, particularly waders.
Another spartina species, tine Atlantic spartina (Spartina alterniflora), native to parts of tine US, Is
also widely used for land conversion purposes including In areas w here It is not native. Invasion
of W illapa Bay, W ashington State, is rapidly and dram atically transforming a large area of tidal
mudflats Into m eadow s of dense vegetation, affecting many thousands of migratory waterfowl,
shorebircls, and wading birds that forage in tine open mudflats, In other parts of tine US where
Atlantic spartina Is not native, sucki as San Francisco Bay, It Inas hybridised withi different native
Spartina species, threatening tine native flora In marshi areas. Tiñese hybrids are tougher than
their 'parent1 species and as a result becom e even better invaders. Tine spread of hybrids
between Atlantic spartina and tine native S, maritima In tine UK is another well known case of
pilant invasion by hybridisation,
A sim ple but very effective strategy to fight back: Is to Identify new arrivals of tine invasive spartina
in valuable sites early by surveying vulnerable areas and eliminating them before they spread,
Several m ethods have been used to remove larger infestations, In small areas, sm othering,
burning, burying or digging c u t tine grass are all feasible. Larger areas are usually treated withi
herbicide where tinis Is possible and acceptable, The W ashington State (US) Departm ent of
Agriculture approved the introduction of a planthopper (a group of Insects that resem ble pilant
leaves and 'hop' like grasshoppers) Prokelisia marginata into Willapa Bay, as a biological control
agent against S, alterniflora.
Cholera Is cue of the best known fatal diseases. Caused by various strains of Vibrio chotera
bacteria, .symptoms of the disease vary frorn rnilcl to acute diarrhoea accom panied by abdominal
cram ps, nausea, vomiting, dehydration and shock, In the m ost severe cases, a healthy person
can becom e dehydrated within cue hour of the onset of sym ptom s and be dead two Incurs
later. Fortunately for m ost people, 20th century im provem ents In sanitation, hygiene, waste
disposal, food handling and dom estic w ater supply, leave resulted in a significant decline in the
disease.
So winy m ention this disease In a book about marine invasive pilants and animals? The answ er is
that the bacteria which cause cholera leave nek d isappeared, Like m ost other human pathogens,
tleey are capable of m utating Into new strains and tleey are still able to cause epidem ics, Tleey
are also able to 'travel' widely in ship ballast water.
29
The story
of cholera
In the 19803, a new strain of Vibrio cholera appeared, possibly in Indonesia, and local epidem ics
flared-up across m uch c>f eastern Asia, In 1991, a ship frorn Asia brought a new, virulent strain of
the disease to the port of Lima in Peru, probably through contam inated bilge water. The bacteria
soon Infected shellfish and then spread to humans, rapidly reaching epidem ic proportions, In
Peru alone there leave been a million cases of cholera and up to 10,000 deaths,
Tilapia (Oreochromis sp p ,) is the com m on name given to more than 70 species of tisii, of
which at least eight are used for aquaculture, Tolerance to water température and to salinity
varies greatly between species, Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) are the least colei tolerant of
the farmed tilapia and prefer tropical to subtropical clim ates whereas blue tilapia (Oreochromis
aureus) are able to tolerate tem peratures as low as 8 - 9°C, rnah.ing it more likely to establish In
countries withi pronounced seasonal temperature variations, Tilapia usually live in freshwater
b ut sorne species and hybrids can tolerate a wide range of saline concentrations, About 85
countries farm tilapia Including China and many South East Asian countries, as well as parts of
Central America, Africa and the South Pacific islands. Up to 98% of farms are outside the tilapiae
native range.
Tilapia
friend and foe
Tilapia are well adapted to being farmed as they gain weight quickly and reproduce without
special m anagem ent or infrastructure, Selective breeding to reproduce 'genetically Improved'
tilapia and hybridising Inave also been used to create increasingly adaptable, hardy and fast
growing tisii. However, the same qualities that mahe the species Ideal for tisii farming mahe
them form idable invaders when they escape, The preferred system of farming uses cages. This
carries a fairly leighi risk In term s of environmental im pact but it is the cheapest m ethod In terms
of start up co sts and is the preferred option for small scale farmers, and usually the only option
for poor comm unities,
There are many cases where tilapia introduction leas led to declines in native tisii, aquatic pilants,
and changes to the habitat, In kahe Nicaragua, farmed tilapia, grown for export to the US,
escaped and destroyed natural habitats, replaced native cicldicl tisii (the family of tisii to which
tilapia belongs) and caused problem s for the local people because they are more difficult to
catch than the native species they replaced, As a result, local com m unities around the lake leave
less access to protein In their diet even though those that own the tisii farms are better off clue
to the export dollars generated. In many countries, tilapia escape and their ecological im pacts
are not well monitored and the im pacts are, if anything, underestimated. The salinity tolerance of
sorne of the tilapia species m eans they can spread frorn o re river basin to another as they can
survive In coastal areas between river mouths,
The problem cices not Ile withi the farmed tisii, but withi those that escape and establish In
the wild, There are m ethods available that allow tisii farming to continue, but without the highi
environmental costs, Improvement and implementation of m ethods that would result in fewer
escapes or few er im pacts frorn escapes may be possible, Intentional introductions of alien
species for aquaculture should only be permitted after risk analysis in which environmental costs
are taken Into account, and environmentally sustainable m anagem ent options are identified. The
possibility of
L is tin g
native fish for aquaculture (especially In areas where native fish species are
vulnerable to tilapia) should be explored,
30
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