FIGURES
1.1. Analytic Dimensions of Urban Military Operations...
3.1. Force Protection Versus Collateral-Damage
Avoidance.................................
4.1. Building Height and Street Width Affect
Required Observer Height .....................
4.2. Proportion of Surveyed Cities in Each UTZ.........
4.3. Surveillance/Reconnaissance Platform Coverage
on Flat, Open Terrain ........................
4.4. Surveillance/Reconnaissance Platform
on Urban Terrain ...........................
4.5. Urban Sensor-Cueing Concept .................
4.6. Airborne Sensor View of Three-Fourths of 15-m-Wide
Streets over Buildings of Different Heights, from
1,000 m AGL ...............................
4.7. Targets in Buildings Allow Lower Depression
Angles Than Do Targets in Streets ...............
4.8. Perceived Window Size As a Function of Vertical
Viewing Angle ..............................
4.9. Interior Views Shift with Vertical Viewing Angle .....
4.10. Effect of Azimuth and Elevation on Perceived
Window Size ...............................
4.11. View of Building Faces Across 15-m-Wide Streets ....
4.12. Standard LGB Deliveries for Vertical and
Horizontal Targets ..........................
4.13. Percent of City Wall Areas That Can Be Hit .........
4.14. Large USAF Warheads Make Damage Limitation
Difficult for Many Urban Targets ................
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59
74
77
84
86
88
95
99
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103
104
105
109
110
113
x
Aerospace Operations in Urban Environments
5.1. Sensors Detect and Stop Combatant Force
Movement or Operations .....................
5.2. GPS-Guided Video Camera Is Used for Target ID ....
5.3. Pattern Analysis Detects Anomalies, Warns of
Ambushes.................................
5.4. Armed UAV and Unmanned Ground Sensors
Counter Snipers ............................
5.5. Mini–Glide Bomb Flyout ......................
5.6. Schematic of Mini–Glide Bomb .................
5.7. Covert Placement of Rooftop Unattended Sensor ....
5.8. Unattended Ground Sensors, SOF Team, and UAVs
Monitor High-Priority Target (Covert) ............
5.9. GPS-Guided Canister Resupplies Friendly Forces ....
5.10. Attack Mini-UAV Provides Close Support ..........
6.1. High-Resolution Laser Radar–Derived Digital
Elevation Model of San Francisco ...............
6.2. Single-Pass InSAR Geometry ...................
6.3. InSAR Combined with Panchromatic Image Overlay
of Howard Air Force Base, Panama ..............
6.4. Layover and Shadowing Effects in SAR Imagery .....
6.5. Imaging-Sensor Weight and Performance
Trade-Offs ................................
A.1. Determining Maximum Horizontal Distance
for Viewing Streets over a Building ...............
B.1. Irradiance from a 24-ft2 Antenna at 60,000 ft .......
C.1. Free-World Countersniper Systems ..............
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135
137
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141
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154
157
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159
172
207
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