ESSAI
Created in 2002 by a cross-disciplinary faculty, ESSAI,
The College of DuPage Anthology of Academic Writing
Across the Curriculum is an annual academic journal that
represents a unique but inclusive discourse community of
student writers; it fosters student success through writing
across the curriculum and in all levels of learning at
College of DuPage.
The resulting published work is their expanded
cultural and epistemological self-endowed with talent,
sophistication, and fresh scholarship, all expressed with
clarity, eloquence, and grace.
Join with us in honoring the exceptional talents of our
student authors.
Volume XII
It rests on our belief that writing empowers and prepares
our students for meaningful careers and advanced
academic pursuits and that, to realize such goals, the
entire college community is responsible for incorporating
writing into their courses as a vital part of the academic
experience at our college.
That we practice the philosophy of student success
through good writing will become even more apparent
in the journal’s name. It harkens back and pays homage
to Michel de Montaigne, whose seminal style of writing
“essais” connoted one of trials and attempts.
The College of DuPage Anthology of Academic Writing Across the Curriculum
What is Essai?
ESSAI
2013-2014
The College of DuPage Anthology of
Academic Writing Across the Curriculum
Volume XII 2013-2014
ESSAI
The College of DuPage Anthology
Of
Academic Writing Across the Curriculum
(Volume XII 2013-2014)
The College of DuPage, Glen Ellyn, Illinois
The contents of this anthology copyright, 2014
College of DuPage
Awards and Recognitions
ESSAI is a recipient of the prestigious recognitions of
The 2005 Distinguished Achievement Award
of the Community College Humanities Association
The Society of Midland Author’s Qwertyuiop Award
(Founded in 1915, the Society of Midland Authors has included for its members
Hamlin Garland, Harriet Monroe, Vachel Lindsay, Edna Ferber, Carl Sandburg,
Jane Addams, Clarence Darrow, and other literary luminaries.)
and
The 2009 Diana Hacker Two-Year College English Association (TYCA) Award for
Outstanding Program for Two-Year Colleges and Teachers
In the Category of Fostering Student Success
(The TYCA is a national organization that belongs to
the National Council of the Teachers of English-NCTE).
II
Acknowledgments
We warmly salute all submitting instructors for their dedicated and inspired teaching
which has contributed to the successful writing of their students and make it possible for
ESSAI to continue.
We also offer our special thanks to
Dr. Robert Breuder, President,
Dr. Joe Collins, Executive Vice President,
Dr. Jean Kartje, Vice President of Academic Affairs,
Catherine Brod, Vice President of Development/Executive Director, Foundation
Dr. Daniel Lloyd, Dean, Liberal Arts,
Dr. Sheldon Walcherl, Associate Dean, Liberal Arts,
Mr. Tom Cameron, Dean, Health and Sciences,
Dr. Laura Ortiz, Associate Dean, Humanities,
For their constant, gracious support and encouragement.
Our gratitude also goes to Karyin Boulom.
Her meticulous and careful word processing expertise has been indispensable.
Pearson Publishing’s continuing sponsorship of the celebratory reception of the student
writers is deeply appreciated.
Our special and heartfelt appreciation goes to Professor Blevins’ student, Elizabeth
Brousil, who designed the book cover. The others who submitted designs were Rae
Crawford, Lucas Gregulak, and Derick Magante.
The publication and associated recognition event are underwritten, in part, by a grant
from the College of DuPage Foundation
III
“In this work, when it shall be found that
much is omitted,
let it not be forgotten that
much likewise is performed.”
Samuel Johnson, the Preface to his Dictionary
IV
Foreword
Created in 2002 by a cross-disciplinary faculty, ESSAI, The College of DuPage Anthology of Academic
Writing Across the Curriculum is an annual academic journal that represents a unique but inclusive
discourse community of student writers; it fosters student success through writing across the curriculum
and in all levels of learning at College of DuPage. It rests on our belief that writing empowers and
prepares our students for meaningful careers and advanced academic pursuits and that, to realize such
goals, the entire college community is responsible for incorporating writing into their courses as a vital
part of the academic experience at our college.
Like all the past volumes, this Volume XII continues to harvest our belief in fertile cooperation with our
cross-disciplinary faculty who implement writing to learn and promote discipline in their teaching. Some of
the published essays, therefore, have resulted because our students made use of journals, logs,
microthemes, and other informal writing assignments encouraged in the classroom. In this way, students
wrote frequently and improved their writing skills enabling them to comprehend better and to retain
information longer. Others – expository work such as reports, article reviews, criticisms, research papers
– attest to students’ successful participation in academic discourse according to the conventions of
language use and style expected in specific disciplines.
That we practice the philosophy of student success through good writing will become even more apparent
in the journal’s name. It harkens back and pays homage to Michel de Montaigne whose seminal style of
writing “essais” connoted one of trials and attempts. Thus ESSAI chronicles our students’ intellectual trials
wherein they dialogically encounter diverse culturescapes, critically weigh various issues at hand and
then engage in analytical exercises, while each evolving from a personal to a public writing self. The
resulting published work is their expanded cultural and epistemological self endowed with talent,
sophistication, and fresh scholarship, all expressed with clarity, eloquence, and grace.
We continue our editorial tradition in making the best selections for publication. The most exemplary of
the year’s submissions are those that:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Are completed according to assignments’ purposes
Have mechanics, grammar, and other technical points in place
Are imaginative, creative, logical, and risk-taking with respect to assignments’ purposes
Exhibit clarity of writing with respect to purposes
Follow the disciplinary format
Include relevant literature reviews where required
Demonstrate analytical abilities
Generate interest
Join with us in honoring the exceptional talents of our student authors and our student artist whose
graphic design adorns our cover. And watch for Volume XIII of ESSAI which will be published in 2016.
We appreciate your readership. Through your interest and support, our anthology will keep growing.
The ESSAI Editorial Board:
Brian Blevins, Graphic Design
Franz Burnier, English
Richard Jarman, Chemistry
Keith Krasemann, Philosophy
Sarah Magin, English
Chris Petersen, Biology
Lois Stanciak, Education
Ben Whisenhunt, History
V
Table of Contents
Awards and Recognitions .........................................................................................................
II
Acknowledgments.....................................................................................................................
III
Foreword ...................................................................................................................................
V
Julia Andersen
So You Want to Write YA: Social Responsibility and Young Adult Literature ......................
English 1102
1
Nicholas Bashqawi
Kill to Conserve: Ethical Implications of Trophy Hunting Conservation Measures ................
Honors Philosophy 1110
19
Harry Bodell
The Role of Discontent in Communism's Downfall: An Analysis of How We Survived
Communism and Even Laughed................................................................................................
History 2235
24
Kellie Brennan
Today’s Registered Nurse .........................................................................................................
English 1102
27
Kevin Brewton
Sankana Essay...........................................................................................................................
Philosophy 1100
33
Elizabeth Cole
The Effects of Tetracycline and Ibuprofen on Common Duckweed, Lemna minor L..............
Honors Biology 1152
40
Neil Davis
Role of Women in Service .........................................................................................................
History 1120
44
Kelly Donlan
The Usefulness of Rubrics ........................................................................................................
Education 1100
46
VI
Randy Dziak
Civil Engineering: A Surprisingly Noble Career ......................................................................
English 1102
50
Katrina Favis
The Legend of Starved Rock.....................................................................................................
English 1102
57
Emily Garvanovic
Miasmatic Theory .....................................................................................................................
Chemistry 1152
60
Frank Giuliani
The Composition, Structure, Sources, and Applications of Eugenol........................................
Honors Chemistry 1552
63
Hayley Hickson
Saving the Tallgrass Prairie ......................................................................................................
English 1102
67
Hope Javier
The Four Humours Theory........................................................................................................
Honors Chemistry 1552
72
Jonathan Kaye
Communicative Action via Internet Technologies ...................................................................
Philosophy 1800
75
Syeda Khalid
Pediatrics: Because We Care About the ‘Little World’ ............................................................
English 1102
82
Marie Labbe
Physical Therapy: A Profession with a Promising Future ........................................................
English 1102
88
Amanda Manton
Term Limits in the United States ..............................................................................................
Honors English 1102
94
VII
Matt Mazur
Is there an Animal Consciousness? A Phenomenological Approach ......................................
Philosophy 1800
98
Virginia Meglio
Life, Lottery, for the Pursuit of Organs.....................................................................................
Philosophy 1100
107
Bryan Mundt
A Fountain Very Exhaustible: The Pollution and Restoration of Lake Michigan ....................
English 1102
113
David O’Sullivan
Hospitality .................................................................................................................................
Philosophy 1110
117
Ashley Padavonia
Effect of Resource Indulgence on Aquatic Vascular Plants: A Closer Study of
Lemna minor .............................................................................................................................
Biology 1152
119
Becky Reichel
A Humorous Lesson..................................................................................................................
Honors Chemistry 1551
123
Michael Robles
Video Games as an Art Form....................................................................................................
English 1102
126
Dina Rudenya
The 1968 Riots: Protesting the Democratic Convention...........................................................
English 1102
130
Jake Sumeraj
Changing Baseball Forever .......................................................................................................
Honors English 1102
134
Emily Trca
Being a woman in the time of Stalin: Becoming the Other ......................................................
History 2225
139
VIII
Alexandra Wickersham
Mothers, Martyrs, Damsels, and Demons: Women in Western Horror from Romanticism to
the Modern Age.........................................................................................................................
English 1102
143
Ryan Woitas
Naturally Occurring Persistent Organic Pollutant.....................................................................
Chemistry 1552
156
Tribute to Faculty......................................................................................................................
159
Cumulative Index of Student Authors.......................................................................................
160
IX
So You Want to Write YA: Social Responsibility and Young Adult Literature
by Julia Andersen
(English 1102)
D
espite what the uninitiated might assume, there is much more to Young Adult literature than
supernatural love triangles; writing quality YA is a difficult and time-consuming task.
Although no one can deny the popularity of titles like Stephenie Meyer’s best-selling
Twilight, for example, many a critic has lampooned her flimsy characters and flat writing, and the
borderline-abusive relationship between the novel’s main character and her love interest has been
thoroughly decried. Meyer’s novel, written in three months, took off in the Young Adult market, but
the message she sends to teens about gender roles and relationships is considered by many to be a
troubling one. YA authors must consider their impressionable adolescent audience while crafting
their story, and take into account young adults’ many and varied needs during a time of intense life
changes. As a relatively new genre, Young Adult literature is still coming into its own; therefore, it
has great potential to address the needs of all its readers, including members of minority groups
traditionally ignored by the publishing industry. As an aspiring YA author, you must educate
yourself on the concerns and needs of your audience, the current state of the Young Adult writing
and publishing industry, and the potential for that industry to change over time. Is YA truly the genre
for you?
Of course, to answer that question, you first have to figure out exactly what YA lit is.
Unfortunately, there’s no easy answer to that question; because it’s a relatively new genre, Young
Adult literature’s definition and conventions are still being determined. As Michael Cart notes on
behalf of the Young Adult Library Services Association, a branch of the American Library
Association, it is difficult to give such a dynamic genre a static definition. He says, “The term ‘young
adult literature’ is inherently amorphous, for its constituent terms ‘young adult’ and ‘literature’ are
dynamic, changing as culture and society—which provide their context—change.” Currently,
YALSA defines a “young adult” as someone between the ages of twelve and eighteen.
One of the few things on which most experts seem to agree is that Young Adult novels
typically address coming-of-age issues, and feature a main character between the ages of twelve and
sixteen. This age window is conducive to discussions of difficult topics that are often associated with
adolescence, ranging from drug abuse to sexuality to race to self-determination to social acceptance.
Some novels approach such issues directly, while others deliver guidance in the form of metaphor or
analogy. Some are concerned with the suburban teenager’s everyday concerns—dating drama,
changing or disintegrating friendships, familial pressures or parental troubles—while others take
place in fantastic or far-removed settings, such as J.K. Rowling’s Hogwarts or J. R. R. Tolkien’s
Middle Earth. Yet, more often than not, these fantastic and far-removed stories still deal with many
of the same issues as their more immediately realistic fellows. For example, Harry Potter finds in the
Weasleys the family he was denied by the Dursleys, struggles to separate himself from the evil he
fights (and which, he finds, literally lurks inside of him), and deals with his share of romantic
frustrations. Joanne Brown and Nancy St. Clair, authors of Declarations of Independence:
Empowered Girls in Young Adult Literature, 1990-2001, explain:
1
[F]antasy and science fiction, the two main forms of literature of the fantastic, are
usually set in either an unspecified past or future. Either setting allows for a world
populated by beings or technology not found in a contemporary setting. Yet while the
world of the novel is significantly different from the world of the reader, it frequently
is plagued by the same anxieties about the same conflicts as the world the reader
inhabits. (140)
Evidently, addressing common adolescent concerns is a major part of what classifies a book
as Young Adult literature. According to Pam B. Cole, author of the McGraw-Hill textbook Young
Adult Literature in the 21st Century, other “characteristics that have historically defined the genre [of
YA lit]” include:
1. The protagonist is a teenager.
2. Events revolve around the protagonist and his/her struggle to resolve conflict.
3. The story is told from the viewpoint and in the voice of a young adult.
4. Literature is written by and for young adults.
5. Literature is marketed to the young adult audience.
6. Story doesn’t have a ‘storybook’ or ‘happily-ever-after’ ending—a characteristic of
children’s books.
7. Parents are noticeably absent or at odds with young adults.
8. Themes address coming-of-age issues (e.g., maturity, sexuality, relationships, drugs).
9. Books contain under 300 pages, closer to 200. (49)
However, Cole immediately goes on to warn that “reliance upon a laundry list of characteristics…
results in a narrow and misleading definition of young adult literature.” She mentions, for example,
that “YA books range from thin novellas to books with 800+ pages,” as in the case of Rowling’s
Harry Potter series, mentioned above (49). So, while the protagonist is almost always a teenager, and
events are often related from their viewpoint and in their voice, not all aspects of Cole’s list are or
remain accurate.
A notable example of the changing face of YA lit, and one that has already begun to void
Cole’s list, is the increasing interest of adults in the Young Adult market. As Cole herself has noted,
“In [recent] years the young adult genre has evolved, becoming more sophisticated, more inclusive,
has gained more widespread popularity” (50). In fact, even more adults than teens are beginning to
flock to YA lit. According to Ashley Strickland’s recent article, “A Brief History of Young Adult
Literature” on CNN.com, “55% of young adult books purchased in 2012 were bought by adults
between 18 and 44 years old.” Many experts cite the inherent turmoil of adolescence as a draw for
audiences of all ages, whether they be teens eager to see their real-life struggles dealt with in some
form, or adults looking to revisit the transformative teen years in print. As one young adult author
said in an interview with Pepperdine University’s Pepperdine Magazine last year, “‘I think a lot of
adults like the theme of finding yourself. You get to go back to that time in your life and relive the
wonder of your teenage years, and all of those not so wonderful firsts, too’” (Suzanne Lazear qtd. in
Fisher). Fellow YA author Cynthia Struloeff agrees, “‘Teenagers’ lives are about transitions and
defining moments. That’s very exciting in a narrative sense, so it makes sense to me that adults are
drawn to YA’” (Struloeff qtd. in Fisher). As Kat Falls, author of YA novel Inhuman, told Bob Sirott
and Marianne Murciano during her WGN radio interview:
“I read YA, and so much is being done in that genre that’s exciting and new and
edgy. And you don’t get boxed into a genre the way you do with adult fiction. Like, if
you’re sci-fi, you’re in this one section of the bookstore, and only sci-fi lovers head
over to it. Well, YA, all those books are shelved together. They’re just lumped as YA
because it has a teenaged protagonist.”
2
The variety within the YA genre is something readers of all ages may find attractive—the
genre’s inclusion of titles addressing everything from death and life-after-divorce to first dates and
after-school jobs, making Falls’s definition seem particularly apt. However, not all authorities in the
field agree. In a personal interview, Young Adult author Trina Sotirakopulos, argues:
Adult books with young protagonists are still Adult books, such as Lovely Bones. …
Lovely Bones is [narrated by] a character, Suzy Salmon, who’s twelve… but she’s
writing from heaven, and she’s writing about her brutal murder. …So that’s Adult.
…I don’t think you can look at the age of a character and say that this is Adult or
Young Adult. Young Adult is more responsible. …The Adult book, you can write
however you want. You could end with horrible, horrible sadness, and you’re not
held to any other standard…. But in the Young Adult novel, it must end with hope.
Something must give the teenager hope. …I think that’s the difference.
However, one of the key attributes of Young Adult literature, which differentiates it from Children’s
literature, is the absence of “storybook endings”—so while Young Adult novels do generally end on
a hopeful note, this characteristic does not necessarily prevent the author from addressing difficult or
delicate topics.
After all, YA includes titles like Speak, The Hunger Games trilogy, and The Fault in Our
Stars, each of with conclude with the sort of practical optimism that has become a characteristic of
the genre. The first is a novel by Laurie Halse Anderson that centers around a rape victim’s struggle
to acknowledge and overcome the trauma she suffered; the second, by Suzanne Collins, features
protagonist Katniss’s struggle to first survive in, and later bring down the tyrannical government of,
her dystopian near-future setting; and John Green’s The Fault in Our Stars deals with issues of
mortality and grief through the experiences of teenaged cancer patients. In each, the protagonist
works to overcome, or at least come to terms with, their difficulties. Rather than curing Hazel, the
main character of The Fault in Our Stars, Green writes of her appreciation for life even as she fears
dying and comes to terms with the death of a friend (also a cancer victim). Rather than promising a
perfect new world when Katniss succeeds in escaping the previous government regime, Collins
offers the potential for large-scale healing in an improved (but still imperfect) world—hope over a
trite happily-ever-after.
However, not all YA novels accomplish this balance of realism and optimism. Cole claims,
“The societal belief that stories should have hope impacts the way some writers end their stories.”
She explains, “[w]hile good writers shy away from the happily-ever-after endings, many still tend to
‘lighten’ events by story’s end,” despite the fact that, typically, the time frame of a YA novel “is not
conducive to deep character development and, most importantly, it is not long enough realistically
for characters to work through personal and family issues” (65). These endings may be the basis for
some criticism on the general quality of the YA genre, although such criticism is generally
considered surface and uninformed, as there is great variety in any other category of literature. As
Cole explains in Young Adult Literature in the 21st Century:
3
Grounding their criticism in erroneous and misleading media coverage and in limited
familiarity with young adult literature, some critics assert young adult literature is
worthless and inferior to classical texts and adult literature. Those who study the
young adult genre, however, understand multiple factors contribute to this negative
pigeonholing. They also know that young adult literature offers some of the best in
contemporary literature. … A number of issues contribute to a stigmatic view of the
genre. First, the location of young adult literature in bookstores is problematic. Some
bookstores combine young adult literature with children’s literature, and by doing so,
send an unwritten message that young adult literature is not sophisticated enough for
teens, especially older readers. Other bookstores place young adult literature in close
proximity to children’s literature, sending a similar message. (57-60)
So, while some would consider Young Adult literature childish or simple, it is actually a
relatively sophisticated and often challenged genre. In fact, because so many YA novels tackle
important and sensitive subjects, covering everything from abuse to poverty to sexuality to race to
religion, the genre is a favorite target of censorship groups across the U.S. Cole explains, “[w]ouldbe censors genuinely believe they have a definitive take on ‘morality’ and… criticize young adult
authors for ‘corrupting the young,’ ‘being evil,’ or ‘writing shocking, violent, and obscene stories to
make a buck.’” She condemns their censorship, which “violates intellectual freedom, the individual
right to access information from all viewpoints free of restriction,” and connects their behavior to
that of oppressive regimes:
Censors of young adult literature fail to see the parallels between their own desires to
suppress information about such topics as sexuality, religion, violence, vulgarity, and
the successful attempts by dictators, governments, and military groups to control and
even brainwash their countries’ population. They see their actions as ‘helpful’ and
‘decent.’ (70)
Cole also provides a list of classical titles challenged and the censors’ reasons for objecting,
including Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank for being “obscene and blasphemous,” J.D.
Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye—“A dreadful, dreary, recital of sickness, sordidness, and
sadism”—and Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird, because “The word ‘rape’ is used several times.
Children should not see this in any literature book” (70-71).
Of course, contemporary YA titles are also challenged fairly regularly; now, however, people
are fighting back very publicly. The American Library Association, for example, runs a Banned
Book Week each September encouraging people to read books that have been banned or challenged.
According to the ALA, the top three reasons materials are banned are that “the material was
considered ‘sexually explicit,’ …contained ‘offensive language,’ … [or] was ‘unsuited to any age
group.’” The ALA even keeps lists of the most challenged authors by year, and the top one hundred
banned books by decade. Recent years have featured names like Sherman Alexie, John Steinbeck,
Judy Blume, Ellen Hopkins, Suzanne Collins, J.K. Rowling, Stephen Chbosky, Chris Crutcher, Lois
Lowry, Toni Morrison, and John Green as most challenged authors. The list of most challenged titles
in recent years include Rowling’s Harry Potter series, the novel I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
by Maya Angelou, and even the Captain Underpants series by Dav Pilkey.
Individual authors have also been seen taking a stand against book banning. When her book,
The Bermudez Triangle, was challenged in Barlesville, Oklahoma, author Maureen Johnson
mobilized her fan base by posting multiple blog entries about the attempted censorship and her
response. The parent in question challenged Johnson’s book on the grounds that it contains
“[h]omosexual content, unprotected sex, underage drinking, and reckless promiscuity” and “wrongly
4
promotes a ‘do whomever you want to discover yourself’ mentality. There’s no mention of the
myriad of diseases, pregnancy, destruction of friendships and lives that are very real consequences of
a ‘sexual free-for-all’ decision” (Angela Rader qtd. in I Am A Very Dangerous Person, Johnson).
While there is a homosexual relationship in The Bermudez Triangle, there is no sexual activity
beyond kissing, invalidating Rader’s charges of “reckless promiscuity” and eliminating any worry of
pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections. Furthermore, Johnson writes, “The book is entirely
about what happens to friendships when relationships enter the picture,” and therefore devotes much
attention to the possibility of ruined friendship as a consequence of romantic involvement (Johnson,
“I Am A Very Dangerous Person”).
When the school board, who admitted they had not read the book before voting,
recommended removing the book from the high school library, Johnson took action. It was not
simply because she thought her book did not deserve to be banned, she explained in multiple entries,
but because book-banning sets a dangerous precedent, especially when school committees do it so
quietly that the majority of their towns’ residents don’t even realize it’s happening. She emailed the
committee members, alerted her readers, and even involved the town’s local newspaper. She
continued to chronicle her struggle against the book banning until the case’s conclusion, almost two
months after the committee originally voted. They decided that Johnson’s book would be kept on a
“special shelf,” and only be checked out to students with a parental permission slip (Johnson, “News
Flash: Victory in Bartlesville (Sorta, Kinda)”). Johnson credited this partial victory in large part to
the hundreds of letters and emails her readers and fans sent protesting the banning.
Johnson is not the only individual author who has taken a stand against book banning, either.
Chris Crutcher is known for his arguments against censorship, and other authors with a notable social
media presence have used their online clout to help anti-book banning movements gain momentum.
Authors like Johnson or John Green may provide the professional email addresses of the public
officials involved so that concerned citizens can share their views on literary censorship directly with
the people in charge of determining whether or not a challenged book will remain on the shelves.
Of course, social media can be used for publicity outside of anti-book banning movements;
the vast majority of authors today have some online presence, and some have particularly large and
devoted followings. Of these, few can rival Internet and YA giant John Green. Green has certainly
had his fame augmented thanks to his social media presence as half of the wildly popular
Vlogbrothers YouTube channel, and co-founder of the DFTBA record label and product line (named
after a Vlogbrother community catchphrase, “Don’t Forget to Be Awesome”). The Vlogbrothers
“brand” has expanded to include multiple YouTube channels like CrashCourse, the Art Assignment,
and even an Emmy Award-winning web series. Of course, Green’s literary work can also stand on its
own; as Cole writes in Young Adult Literature in the 21st Century:
[Y]oung adult literature offers some of the best in contemporary literature. It’s almost
impossible to read a book like John Green’s Looking for Alaska (2005), for instance,
and not develop huge respect for young adult literature and those who write for this
audience. Deeply philosophical and richly textured, Looking for Alaska is an intense
coming-of-age story about a group of teens, a boarding school, and one boy’s search
for the ‘Great Perhaps.’ First-time novelist Green depicts the intensity of adolescence
seldom seen in contemporary literature. (57-58)
Green has since gone on to write several more books, including The Fault in Our Stars, which was
recently turned into a movie. Another novel of his, Paper Towns, is also being adapted into a film.
While his novels are certainly high-quality, it’s not unreasonable to assume that the enthusiasm of his
widespread online fanbase was encouraging to filmmakers considering adapting his work for the
screen. Of course, Green is an outstanding case; while some authors also gain large followings on
5
other social media sites—Johnson currently has 100,000 Twitter followers, for example—few have
yet to reach Green’s level of online prominence. Even so, almost every professional author also has a
blog with biographical and bibliographical information, and many run blogs similar to Johnson’s.
Official websites, like that of the Authors Guild, also demonstrates the online presence of authors; a
list of members on the site includes the likes of Laurie Halse Anderson and Judy Blume.
But these are public concerns of authors that have already been published and are looking to
maintain or augment their recognition; what kind of training is required to produce and sell a book in
the first place? According to Sotirakopulos, education plays a key role in a writer’s ability to produce
a high-quality novel. In a personal interview, she explained:
I think it’s a combination of experience in writing/education, or just the education.
But [the author] Linda Sue Park is a great one who will say that to write a novel you
need to read one hundred novels, to write a picture book, …[read] one thousand
picture books. … So I don’t know if you need a degree, or certificate, but you
certainly need to study the craft.
So where in the United States can aspiring YA authors go to study the craft and get a degree
or certificate along the way? Unfortunately, traditional sources on the topic of career training have
little information tailored to Young Adult authors. However, by taking a sample of fifty critically
acclaimed and popularly successful American Young Adult authors, one might evaluate these
authors’ history of higher education.1 The results might be surprising—not only did 18% of the
authors surveyed for this paper not complete any formal higher education at all, the remaining 82%
showed remarkably little consistency in their schooling choices. Six attended Ivy League schools, but
thirty-five did not. Four authors attended schools in the South, fifteen in the West, eighteen in the
East, and eleven in the Midwest. The survey also found that seven attended colleges with less than
10,000 students, while the remaining thirty-four went to large universities ranging from 20,000 to
50,000 students. It seems, then, that there is no great regularity to the colleges these authors have
attended, only that the majority—82%—completed some formal higher education, and most of them
did so with a focus in an English- or Communications-related field.
If only 18% of these authors succeeded without a degree or certificate, how did the vast
majority’s degree or certificate contribute to their career success? According to Sotirakopulos, level
of education is generally reflected in the quality of an author’s writing. She explains that authors like
“John Green and his editor… Julia Strauss-Gabel… know literary work, so they can still write for
teens, they still produce work for teens, but they follow a nice literary pattern… [with] a complex
plot and beautiful prose.” She goes on to explain that, in her mind, the important thing is a balance
between education and experience:
I think there is something to be said about education, or at least recognition in the
field. …I can’t say whether or not people look at [a writer’s] education and publish
their [work] because of the education [they have]. Although I am editing an
anthology on women’s life shifts, and when we were looking at submissions we did
take into consideration …not only the quality but [also] the author’s interest in the
field, submersion in the field, you know. So it wasn’t necessarily where did they go
to college or what did they teach, that kind of thing, but it was more or less did they
know the field, …are they attending conferences, are they active in some kind of
organization. That was the focus.
1
SeeAppendix for full list and findings.
6
So while it is unlikely that an author’s education will be directly responsible for the success of their
work, the indirect effect—namely, the improved writing quality due to education—will most likely
contribute to career success.
But how does a YA author’s level of education affect their salary? Unlike many professional
careers, a high-level degree does not guarantee an increase in pay, as demonstrated by the fact that
18% of the YA authors surveyed earlier never completed any form of higher education. But while a
degree or certificate may not be absolutely required to succeed as an author, knowledge of the
publishing industry is—at least traditionally. The recent self-publishing craze seems to be leveling
the playing field for the less-experienced writer, although an increasing number of expert voices deny
that self-publishing gives novice authors any real advantage. Certainly, self-publishing requires much
less knowledge of the publishing world and all its intricate relationships and maneuverings than
navigating the traditional publishing house process. Unfortunately, as article after article will tell
you, this ease does not always lead to success. Perhaps even more unfortunately, all the effort that
goes into having your book published in the traditional manner doesn’t always pay off, either.
Let’s start with traditional publishing—a process that begins with polishing your own
manuscript, and never seems to end. According to author Nathan Bransford, once you have a full
manuscript that you’re relatively happy with, you have to continue working on it. Polish it “so much
it’s shining like the top of the Chrysler Building. Now it’s time to find an agent, right? Nuh uh. Time
to learn about the publishing business.” He advises, “Before you embark on your quest for a literary
agent, you should devote many, many hours to familiarizing yourself with the business, literary
agents, editors, and anything else you can possibly do to discern how this unique industry operates.”
This advice is echoed by Jerry Simmons of Writers Digest, who explains, “Knowing how
[production, marketing, sale and distribution of your book] comes together doesn’t just increase your
odds of crafting a submission that will get you a deal—it also gives you a better chance of impacting
the decisions that can make or break your book’s success.” These important decisions, of course,
include things like the book’s cover, which will be discussed later in this paper. Simmons adds:
Writing is a craft, but publishing is a business. …Being able to intelligently discuss
books and authors with professionals who make their living in publishing builds your
credibility as a market-savvy author—especially if you can demonstrate an
understanding of where your own book will fit in. Once you know exactly where
your work belongs on the shelf, be sure that knowledge is reflected in the query or
cover letter accompanying your submissions to agents or editors. It will increase your
chances of getting one.
A query letter is a brief letter that describes your work, which you send to prospective agents in the
hopes they’ll be interested and want to take you on as a client.
Bransford also recommends networking as much as possible in order to increase your
chances of a referral by an established author, explaining that agents are “more likely to [give your
manuscript] a thorough look” if it’s been endorsed by someone that agent respects. Considering the
amount of work that crosses their desk, this is a definite advantage. But, no matter how desperate
you are to have an agent look at your work, author Maureen Johnson advises wariness: “Anyone that
offers a quick-fix, a sure deal, a new method of getting to editors… are lying to you. Money up front
is a 100% sign that an agent is a fake. Real agents only take a percentage from something they sell.”
Johnson recommends contacting the Author’s Guild if you are unsure of an agent’s credentials or a
contract you’ve been offered, whether by an agent or publishing company.2
2
See Appendix for more information on the Authors Guild, including services, dues, and
membership types.
7
Even once you’ve snagged a bona fide agent with your Chrysler-Building-shiny manuscript,
referrals, and/or query letters, which can take months or longer, there’s quite a bit of work to be
done. The purpose of having an agent, of course, is that they know the ins and outs of the publishing
world; as Johnson puts it on her professional website and blog:
Editors tend to specialize in one type of book. …Writers out in the world won’t know
what these editors specialize in. …[Agents] know which editors are publishing which
books. They will know that Editor Suzy LOVES books with a little romance, but
doesn’t want to hear about your vampire. Editor Grace, who works at the same
company, is gasping for a vampire. She’s got a long list of vampire books. The editor
will know to send the romance to Suzy, the vampire to Grace.
Once you have an agent to send your manuscript, Johnson warns there will be long periods of
waiting for publishing companies to respond. If you’re lucky enough to have more than one
interested publisher, your agent takes care of auctioning off your work. When your agent has
negotiated a deal with a publishing company, they will come to you for the final sign-off. After that,
Simmons of Writer’s Digest cautions, it’s out of your hands: “The moment that contract was signed,
you lost rights and control over how your manuscript will be published.” This includes decisions like
cover art, marketing, and even the book title. Simmons recommends meeting with the staff in charge
of putting your book out into the world and developing relationships with them to increase the
chances that your suggestions will at least be taken under consideration. He insists that maintaining
these relationships are key to ensuring a final product everyone is more or less happy with: “[E]very
smart writer knows his editor is also his main contact (and advocate) for all things relating to the
publication of his manuscript. Conduct yourself accordingly.”
So, when does the money start rolling in? Well, not until after your book makes a profit. The
publishing company first has to make back what it spent on your advance—the amount the
publishing company paid for the rights to your work. Advances can range “anywhere from ten grand,
which is very low-end, to six figures,” according to Sotirakopulos. Once the book has begun making
a profit, authors can begin receiving their royalties, or percentage of earnings from book sales.
According to Johnson, this amount is usually between 8% and 15%. Of course, this only happens if
your books make it off the shelves and into the hands of readers.
Which brings us to one of the great lures of self-publishing: it can be very, very cheap, and
very, very lucrative—if the author hits mainstream fame. According to Leslie Kaufman’s article in
The New York Times, “New Publisher Authors Trust: Themselves”:
While self-published authors get no advance, they typically receive 70 percent of
sales. A standard contract with a traditional house gives an author an advance, and
only pays royalties—the standard is 25 percent of digital sales and 7 to 12 percent of
the list price for bound books—after the advance is earned back in sales.
However, according to Sarah Fay’s article, “After ‘Fifty Shades of Grey,’ What’s Next for
Self-Publishing?” in The Atlantic, “The success rate [of self-published books] is less than one
percent.”
In a personal interview with recently self-published fantasy author and fellow College Of
DuPage student Nathan Kiehn, he explained to me:
8
I basically wrote it with no intention of publishing it, and then my dad mentioned,
“Hey, why don’t you, you know, try to publish it?” And I thought, “OK.” So my
mom had read it over, and then I read it over. We made a couple changes, mostly
notes, to catch spelling and grammatical things, and that was pretty much all the
editing we did.
He added that they did not come up with cover art or spend any money to have a company format it
for him, and did not spend money to print any hard-copies; instead, he simply formatted it as an
HTML document and uploaded it to Amazon KDP. How much did it cost him to publish? I wanted to
know. “Nothing.” And how many copies had he sold? Nine or ten, for $2.99 each—technically a
profit, though certainly not on the scale of the e-published Twilight fanfiction that became an
international best-seller. (As of April 18th, 2013, Fifty Shades of Grey had already sold over 70
million copies worldwide, according to the Huffington Post.) Certainly Kiehn’s experience was not
as complicated as the traditional publishing route described earlier: no agents or publishing houses
are required, and the author retains all rights to their work.3 Perhaps he hadn’t sold as many copies
as E.L. James’s hit, but he’d still come out in the black.
Naturally, there are also some downsides to self-publishing your work. For one, the selfpublishing field is so new that the market it still flooded with low-quality, formulaic genre books that
would normally never leave a casual writer’s attic or closet floor or similarly disused section of their
computer’s hard drive. So, if you hope to catch the attention of a big publishing house this way, your
chances are low. Even books of decent quality are not always successful in the Wild West of selfpublishing, as it “now accounts for more than 235,000 books annually, according to Bowker”
(Kaufman). Of course, there are a few tales of moderate success amidst the disappointments and the
dizzying glories of self-published authors; Sotirakopulos explained, for example, that her colleague
Ophelia Julien “does very well” with her self-published work. However, Julien has also been writing
for about twenty years, and has had previous experience and success in the publishing world.
It seems, then, that experience may be a key factor in the success of self-publishing, barring
phenomena such as Fifty Shades of Grey, especially as more established authors begin exploring selfpublishing options. Such established authors include the likes of Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright
and author David Mamet; according to Kaufman’s article in The New York Times, Mamet was
attracted in part by the idea that self-publishing allows “well-known figures like Mr. Mamet to look
after their own publicity,” as “traditional publishers have cut back on marketing” in recent years. So
what’s Sotirakopulos’s take on self-publishing—was it something she had ever considered? In my
interview with her, she explained:
I did not consider that, only because I work with friends [who] have a press, [and]
they kind of grandfathered me into it. But my situation is quite rare. … I know people
who do quite well with [self-publishing]. [A] couple [of my colleagues] ended up
self-publishing—…They opened a press and did it. So I think if you have a press
name, you’re fine. But I think it’s the people who go off on their own and go do it
[who might get in trouble]. …I recommend it if the book is edited, and clean, and a
good representation. The publishing market right now, I don’t know, it’s tough.
Although traditional publishing may include more paperwork and rejection letters, and does
not guarantee success in the end, its success rate is certainly higher than self-publishing’s one
percent. As of now, self-publishing is still a virtual free-for-all with no guarantees beyond ease of
3
For more information on copyrights, see Appendix.
9
production, should you take the simplest route. And, be warned—the cost increases substantially if
you bring in professional editors, printers, formatters, packagers, and so on.
Even choosing to publish electronically, while definitely the cheaper option, may negatively
impact your success. According to Voices of Youth Advocates, or VOYA, a publication targeted at
Young Adult librarians, the vast majority of teens still prefer reading physical copies of books. In her
February 2014 article, “I Am Not a Robot: Teens and Technology,” librarian Geri Diorio reports that
her teen advisory group’s preferred reading platform is still print: “Only one TAG [teen advisory
group] member preferred ebooks [to print], but not by much: ‘…[I prefer] ebooks because of
convenience, but it’s 60 to 40 (ebooks to paper)’” (22-23).
How else might the self-publishing and e-publishing revolution affect the industry? Regina
Sierra Carter, Ph.D., suggests that customizable cover-art could significantly alter a reader’s
experience with literature. Her paper, “YA Literature: The Inside and Cover Story,” published in
YALSA’s official publication The Journal of Research on Libraries and Young Adults,
“acknowledges a need for cover art that reflects the ‘changing faces of today’s teen’ and offers
suggestions for how this may be realized on a small scale.” She explains:
As of now, there is little that lovers of YA literature can do about cover art that
grossly misses the mark, which is unfortunate. However, in the future, readers may
have more of a say in how cover art is constructed. When that time comes, there may
be a move toward a more creative and reader-oriented approach to producing cover
art. For example, in the future, cover art may be personally selected via pre-order
services or created using kiosks.
For, as much as most people hate to admit it, a book’s cover largely informs potential readers
whether or not a particular book is something in which they’d like to invest their time. Thus, the
book’s cover has a large amount of power in determining what will be read and what won’t, the
expectations of its readers, and sometimes the mental image the reader has of the main character
before reading. A very serious concern, therefore, is the “whitewashing” of book covers featuring
people of color as their protagonists—something that could very well be addressed by the innovative
methods of cover art development Carter suggests in “YA Literature: The Inside and Cover Story.”
“Whitewashing,” or misrepresenting the race of the book’s main character on the cover of the
story—usually a person of color incorrectly portrayed as White, hence the term “whitewashing”—is
an enduring controversy. (“People of color” is a term that includes anyone who identifies as Black,
Asian, Indian, Native American, multiracial, and so on.) Even before the covers can be whitewashed,
of course, the protagonist must be a person of color. As Carter notes, “Racial minorities have not
traditionally experienced widespread coverage in YA literature [in the first place]”. With such
limited representation already, whitewashed covers are particularly concerning. Carter expresses this
concern in her paper, quoting from the Cooperative Children’s Book Center’s publication, Choices:
For quite a few years we have been commenting on how few books by and about
people of color are published in the United States in relation to the overall number of
books produced annually. As the population of the United States continues to not
only increase but become more diverse, the output of publishing houses has not been
a mirror of society, at least in terms of the numbers.
Carter and the Cooperative Children’s Book Center (CCBC) insist that “‘[i]n our ever-more-diverse
nation, we need books that provide all children the opportunity to see themselves and the world in
which they live reflected.’” This sentiment is echoed by Young Adult librarian Robin Brenner in her
interview with Lisa Weidenfeld of Metro. She says, “[Y]ou want books to be either mirrors or
10
windows. Mirrors should show you yourself in some way, and windows should show you other
people so that you can see what it’s like to not be you, and that’s where the empathy starts to grow in
terms of reading fiction.”
Unfortunately, there is still a distinct lack of minority voices in YA—not only in terms of
characters, but also writers, leaving much to be desired in the way of “mirrors and windows.” In a
recent article for BuzzFeed, “Diversity Is Not Enough: Race, Power, Publishing,” author Daniel José
Older describes his struggle to be heard as an author of color. In a majority-White industry, he was
confronted with agents “that said they loved [his] writing but didn’t connect with the character, …
didn’t think [his] book would be marketable even though it was already accepted at a major
publishing house, … [and] ones that wanted [him] to delete moments when a character of color gets
mean loks from white people.” He even encountered a “white magazine editor who lectured [him] on
how [he’d] gotten [his] own culture wrong.” And his experience is not unique. Older explains, “My
friends all have the same stories of whitewashed covers and constant sparring with the many micro
and mega-aggressions of the publishing industry.” Older goes on to quote publishing industry expert
Sarah McCarry, who explains that even if a non-traditional book is published, the publishing house’s
advertising “money and attention overwhelmingly goes to what the industry has already decided is
‘marketable’—heterosexual narratives featuring white characters [instead of those books featuring
people of color or LGBTQ+ members].”
Indeed, issues in representation are not limited to young people of color; perhaps more
pressing, suggests Talya Sokoll, is the dearth of transgender youth representation in Young Adult
literature.4 She laments that “[w]hile in the past four years publications of these [trans*-oriented]
titles has slightly improved, …the number of books being published is still very low, and some of
these titles are published by small press, with little or no marketing, which makes them difficult for
library staff, or teens, to locate” (Sokoll 23). She emphasizes that “[t]he lack of titles does not mean
there is a lack of need for these books,” citing findings that “‘Transgender students experienced more
hostile school climates than their non-transgender peers—80 percent of transgender students reported
feeling unsafe at school because of their gender expression’” (“2011 National School Climate
Survey” qtd. in Sokoll 24). She also referred to Parrotfish author Ellen Wittlinger’s goal to
“normalize homosexuality and transexuality and make gender and sexual orientation just two of the
many ways in which we are different from each other. She hoped that her book would not only
appeal to adolescents who saw themselves in the characters, but to straight adolescents who did not
think they knew any gay teens’” (24).
Unfortunately, some authors’ attempts to include trans*, genderqueer, multiracial, or other
minority group members may backfire, as these characters are too often reduced to stereotypical
token characters, and/or over-exoticized. So, how does one fairly present characters who are also
members of one or more minority groups? According to Sotirakopulos, author of trans*-oriented YA
novel In Her Skin:
I’ve read books where people have just put [in] a… token character… and it does a
disservice, it’s an insult, I think to that group of people [they’re trying to write about].
So, I would say, base it on reality. …If you, or another writer, is interested in writing
about a specific group of people, submerge yourself and be that person for a while.
4
Transgender is one identity included in the trans* umbrella; other identities represented by the
trans* prefix include transsexual, transvestite, genderfluid, bi-gender, agender, and non-binary, all of
which are severely underrepresented in YA literature.
11
She explains that her own experiences with a close friend since childhood, who went through the
gender-transitioning process, is the only reason she felt comfortable writing about the topic of a
transgender character herself, and agrees that “there isn’t much fiction [for trans*-youth], and it’s not
fair.”
As for over-exoticization, it can occur both within a text itself and, of course, on the cover.
As author Mitali Perkins notes in her article for the School Library Journal, “Straight Talk on Race”:
Sometimes books may be packaged with covers depicting a character as more foreign
than he or she is described in the story. Nowhere in Cynthia Kadohata's novel
Weedflower (S & S/Atheneum, 2006), for example, does 12-year-old Sumiko wear a
kimono. But she does on the cover. For a story about the Japanese internment in
North America during World War II, why did the powers-that-be make an American
protagonist appear more culturally Japanese than American, especially when a girl in
jeans behind barbed wire would have been more historically accurate? Perhaps they
were trying to tap into a fascination with all things foreign, amping up the exotic
factor so that those looking for a book about "faraway cultures" might buy this one.
She goes on to explain that “[o]verexoticizing a nonwhite character to appeal to white readers can
happen inside a story as well as on a cover,” and uses her own book as example. Despite her own
Bengali heritage and awareness of the overexoticization issue, she had, almost unconsciously,
inflicted it upon her own main character. She explains that she didn’t even notice what she’d done
until a reviewer pointed out the “‘unnecessary exoticization of [her] progatonist,” particularly the
description of the character looking like “some exotic Indian princess” at the end of the novel: “I
fumed, but, dang it, the reviewer was right. Exotic Indian princess? What was I thinking? Enduring a
twinge of shame, I moved on and tried to learn from my mistake.”
Unfortunately, misrepresentative covers don’t begin and end with whitewashing and overexoticization; sexism is still a very real issue faced by female authors and their readers. Because a
book cover largely informs the reader on the apparent worth and subject of a book before reading,
even issues seemingly as insignificant as cover art that has little to no connection to the plot can
leave a reader unprepared for the story they’ve just picked up. For example, librarian Darcy
Lohmiller picked up Chris Crutcher’s The Crazy Horse Electric Game “because on its cover were
three kids celebrating apparent victory on a baseball field, and [she] needed a sport book in [her]
repertoire,” only to find that “this was a scene from the first chapter,” after which “[t]he hero… gets
into a water-skiing accident and is partially paralyzed, his parents’ marriage crumbles over their guilt
and grief, and he is quickly alienated from his friends, family, and past life” (13). Not what she was
expecting, and not what your average reader would predict from the cover. While this is a relatively
neutral example, there is an epidemic of misrepresentative covers for fiction written by women; due
to sexist marketing, the perceived value of books by women is often very low. That is something
people like Maureen Johnson want to change.
Several months ago, Johnson, who often Tweets about her experiences in the writing and
publishing industries, made an off-hand comment about how vexing it is to receive messages from
prospective readers who find her covers too embarrassingly “girly” to actually read. She came up
with the idea of a “coverflip”—reimagining the cover of a famous book as if its author’s gender were
“flipped,” both to expose the excessive gendering of book covers and to get a good laugh. When
followers’ responses to her idea of a “cover-flip” took off, she even partnered up with Huffington
Post to run a short competition, putting the top cover-flipped entries of famous and not-so-famous
books on the Huffington Post’s website.
Johnson argued that pointlessly gendered book covers are so common that most people do
not even realize they are inferring the quality of a book based on its cover. Unfortunately, the general
12
consensus is that “chick lit”—books by women, perceived to be “for” women—is of an inferior
quality. Emily Matchar’s article in The Atlantic, “Chick Lit Remixed: The Simple Brilliance of
Gender-Flipping,” discusses the general trend of people using gender-flipping to expose the absurdity
of many media’s hyper-feminine and/or hyper-masculine treatment of certain subjects. She then
moves specifically onto cover-flipping: “Wherein ‘guy’ books are given the ‘women’s fiction’
treatment, with pastel colors and misty photos of pensive-looking girls, and girly books get bro-ed up
with graphic black-and-white. … Highlights [include] John le Carré’s Cold War spy classic Tinker,
Tailor, Soldier, Spy done up in pink and baby blue with four model-like men lounging provocatively
on the jacket, [and] Freedom by ‘Jane Franzen’ featuring a manic pixie dream girl raising her arms to
the wind, Titanic-style.” Matchar goes on to suggest that “if more men read ‘women’s fiction’ it
would cease to be ‘women’s fiction’ at all, and simply become what male-written novels have long
been called: ‘fiction.’”
It wasn’t the first time Johnson called out the stigma attached to women writers and so-called
“chick-lit”; she also started the hashtag trend “#IsItChickLit,” in which Twitter users summarized a
great male-authored literary work as if it were being promoted as “chick lit.” A few outstanding
examples include The Odyssey—“When the hubby’s away, will Penelope play? She has to learn to
rely on herself—and wait for true love,” from user @turning_Beth; a summary of Hamlet from
@elmify: “One big castle, one Danish invasion, and one ZANY boyfriend—what’s a girl to do?”;
and even The Great Gatsby, from @maureenjohnson herself: “Sure the parities [sic] are amazing and
the clothes are fabulous, but how will Daisy’s torrid love affair with Gatsby end?” As anyone who
has taken high school English can tell you, that is certainly not the focus of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s Jazz
Age novel—which is exactly Johnson’s point. As she writes in her Huffington Post article on the
subject, “The Gender Coverup”:
[T]he simple fact of the matter is, if you are a female author, you are much more
likely to get the package that suggests the book is of a lower perceived quality.
Because it’s ‘girly,’ which is somehow inherently different and easier on the palate.
A man and a woman can write books about the same subject matter, at the same level
of quality, and that woman is simple [sic] more likely to get the soft-sell cover with
the warm glow and the feeling of smooth jazz blowing off of it.
Frustratingly, as Johnson notes on her blog, authors seldom have control over their
publisher’s marketing decisions, up to and including the book cover. So, while it is somewhat
discouraging to acknowledge the biases people have regarding female writers, it may be bolstering to
know that there are those like Johnson and the countless #IsItChickLit and CoverFlip participants
actively trying to change such gendered stereotypes. As Johnson notes in her article on The
Huffington Post’s website, “This idea that there are ‘girl books’ and ‘boy books’ and ‘chick lit’ and
‘whatever is the guy equivalent of chick lit’ gives credit to absolutely no one, especially not the boys
who will happily read stories by women, about women.” In a literary world inundated by Manic
Pixie Dream Girls and damsels in distress, it is important that books by women about women are
taken seriously, especially if they provide a more realistic view of the world as it is, with full and
flawed female characters.
Obviously, representation is an issue that starts at the cover and continues to the core of much
of today’s Young Adult literature. Covers misrepresenting the content of their books, whether that
misrepresentation is as serious as whitewashing and sexist marketing, or as seemingly mundane as
illustrating an insignificant scene from the story, are rampant. Thankfully, professionals in the field
are bringing these issues to public attention—whether it be through articles, “coverflipping”, or
hashtag trends. As seen in public responses to the social media movements instigated by Maureen
Johnson, readers and writers agree that trends in misrepresentative cover art must be corrected. There
13
is a dire need for more realistic representation of minority youth in young adult literature—not
merely token characters, or white-washed covers, but true-to-life “mirrors and windows” that allow
young adults to see themselves and their peers truthfully portrayed, as Young Adult librarian Robin
Brenner suggests in her interview with Lisa Weidenfeld of Metro. After all, adolescence is an
important and difficult time for many, and YA literature often provides adolescents with a method of
understanding and navigating the world in which we live.
Now that you know the basic process of becoming a published YA author, as well as some of
the current controversies in the field, you may be questioning your decision to write Young Adult
literature. After all, there is a lot of hard work and risk involved in this profession. Not only must you
take into account your impressionable audience and strive to produce a quality piece of literature that
fairly represents our world, you must learn the ins and outs of publishing to first become published,
and then try to make your published work a financial success. Is it worth the struggle?
That is something you have to answer for yourself, bearing in mind that Young Adult
literature has an important social and cultural impact, especially because it speaks to a rapidly
maturing audience. As Michael Cart explains in his YALSA whitepaper “The Value of Young Adult
Fiction”:
Whether one defines young adult literature narrowly or broadly, much of its value
cannot be quantified but is to be found in how it addresses the needs of its readers.
…[T]hese needs recognize that young adults are beings in evolution, in search of self
and identity; beings who are constantly growing and changing, morphing from the
condition of childhood to that of adulthood. That period of passage [is]…
distinguished by unique needs that are—at minimum—physical, intellectual,
emotional, and societal in nature. By addressing these needs, young adult literature is
made valuable not only by its artistry but also by its relevance to the lives of its
readers.
YA authors have a responsibility provide a realistic view of the world we inhabit to these
“growing and changing” readers. By arming young adults with an understanding of the world they
are coming into, both good and bad, Young Adult authors are arming their readers with an ability to
shape and change that world. Whether you choose to write Young Adult literature or simply carry on
as a consumer, you play an important role in shaping this evolving genre; as YA authors continue
writing for and about adolescents, addressing any number of coming-of-age issues, readers continue
to show their support for this literary form and its perpetual progress. Perhaps publishers will take
note of consumer reactions to their products, particularly in regards to gendered and/or
misrepresentative cover art, and adjust their packaging and marketing accordingly. Or perhaps the
future of YA literature lies in self-published authors, or will turn entirely to e-books; perhaps changes
in platforms will also contribute to clearer and more accurate cover art, and provide opportunities for
voices that might have otherwise been stifled to provide new and innovative perspectives. However
Young Adult literature evolves, it is an important, useful, and enjoyable resource for young adults as
they struggle to understand themselves and the world around them during a period of intense life
changes.
14
Appendix
1. Survey of fifty successful YA writers’ histories of higher education:
Rainbow Rowell—unreported. Possibly no formal higher education
John Green—Kenyon College
Maureen Johnson—University of Delaware, Columbia University
Suzanne Collins—Indiana University, New York University
Rick Riordan—University of Texas (Austin)
Judy Blume—New York University
Beverly Cleary—Chaffey College, UC Berkeley, University of Washington
S.E. Hinton—University of Tulsa
Veronica Roth—Carleton College, Northwestern University
Libba Bray—University of Texas (Austin)
Lois Lowry—Brown University (incomplete), University of Southern Maine
Amanda Hocking—self-published, no formal higher education
Meg Cabot—Indiana University (Bloomington)
Sherman Alexie—Gonzaga University (incomplete), Washington State U
Carl Hiaasen—Emory University (incomplete), University of Florida
Stephanie Perkins—unreported. Possibly no formal higher education
Ransom Riggs—Kenyon College, University of Southern California
Maggie Stiefvater—University of Mary Washington
Cassandra Clare—unreported. Possibly no formal higher education
Holly Black—College of New Jersey, Rutgers University
Marissa Meyer—Stanford University
David Levithan—Brown University
Scott Westerfield—Vassar College
Kami Garcia—has an MA in education, school unspecified
Laini Taylor—UC Berkeley
Richelle Mead—University of Washington, University of Michigan, Western Michigan
University
Kiera Cass—Radford University
Margaret Stohl—Amherst College, Stanford University
Ally Carter—Oklahoma State University, Cornell University
Marie Lu—University of Southern California
Rick Yancey—Roosevelt University
Sarah Dessen—University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill), Greensboro College
Neal Shusterman—University of California (Irvine)
James Dashner—Brigham Young University
Michael Grant—unreported. Possibly no formal higher education.
Jodi Picoult—Princeton University, Harvard University
Simone Elkeles—Purdue University, Loyola University (Chicago), University of Illinois
(Champaign-Urbana)
Laurie Halse Anderson—Onondaga Community College, Georgetown University
Ellen Hopkins—University of California (Santa Barbara)
Gayle Forman—unreported. Possibly no formal higher education.
Lauren Myracle—University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill), Colorado State University
Rachel Cohn—Barnard College
15
Gordon Korman—New York University
Margaret Peterson Haddix—Miami University (Ohio)
Patrick Carman—Willamette University
Linda Sue Park—Stanford University
Ann Brashares—Columbia University, Barnard College
Lauren Kate—University of California (Davis)
Michele Jaffe—Harvard University
Patrick Ness—University of Southern California
2. The Author’s Guild is a not-for-profit organization that represents book authors (including coauthors, ghostwriters, translators, and self-published authors) and freelance writers. Dues are
typically $90 per year for all three categories of membership (Regular, Associate, or Member-AtLarge), although after the first year the dues are technically on a sliding scale. The following services
are the benefits of membership, according to the organization’s official website:
Members of the Authors Guild receive free reviews of U.S. book contracts from
experienced legal staff, low-cost website services including website-building, e-mail,
and domain name registration, access to [the Guild’s] free Back in Print service,
[their] quarterly print Bulletin, and invitations to panels and programs throughout the
year.
Regular membership is available to those who qualify as “an author published by an established U.S.
book publisher, a freelance writer published by periodicals of general circulation in the U.S., or as a
book author or freelance writer earning writing income” (Authors Guild). The Guild specifically
includes self-published authors in the category of freelance writers. A writer may qualify as an
Associate Member if they have “been offered a contract with an American book publisher, …an
established literary agency has offered to represent [that writer], or if [the writer] has earned… at
least $500 in writing income… in the 18 months prior to applying for membership” (Authors Guild).
The Guild grants Associate Members the same rights and privileges as Regular Members, with the
exception of voting in Guild elections, according to the Guild’s official website. They publish a
quarterly bulletin that covers “publishing, copyright, tax, legal and legislative news” (Authors Guild).
3. According to the U.S. Copyright Office, a copyright is “a form of protection grounded in the U.S.
Constitution and granted by law for original works of authorship fixed in a tangible medium of
expression [and] covers both published and unpublished works.” There is a $35 fee to register your
copyright online, according to their page on Registering Your Work, although the Copyright in
General FAQ explains, “Your work is under copyright protection the moment it is created and fixed
in a tangible form that it is perceptible either directly or with the aid of a machine or device.”
However, you must register your work “if you wish to bring a lawsuit for infringement of a U.S.
work,” according to the official website of the U.S. Copyright Office. They add, “Registered works
may be eligible for statutory damages and attorney's fees in successful litigation. …[I]f registration
occurs within 5 years of publication, it is considered prima facie evidence in a court of law.”
16
Works Cited
American Library Association. The American Library Association, 2014. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Authors Guild. The Authors Guild, 22 Apr. 2014. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Bransford, Nathan. “How to Find a Literary Agent.” Blog.NathanBransford.com. Nathan Bransford.
10 Apr. 2008. Web. 8 Mar. 2014.
---. “How to Write a Query Letter.” Blog.NathanBransford.com. Nathan Bransford. 19 Aug. 2010.
Web. 8 Mar. 2014.
Brown, Joanne, and Nancy St. Clair. Declarations of Independence: Empowered Girls in Young
Adult Literature, 1990-2001. Lanham: Scarecrow, 2002. Print.
Cart, Michael. “The Value of Young Adult Literature.” ALA.org. Young Adult Library Services
Association, Jan. 2008. Web. 1 Mar. 2014.
Carter, Regina Sierra. “YA Literature: The Inside and Cover Story.” YALSA.ALA.org. Young Adult
Library Services Association. 18 Apr. 2013. Web. 8 Mar. 2014.
Cole, Pam B. Young Adult Literature in the 21st Century. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education,
2009. HigherEd-McGrawHill.com. Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
Copyright in General (FAQ). US Copyright Office, 12 Jul. 2006. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Diorio, Geri. “I Am Not a Robot: Teens and Technology.” Voice of Youth Advocates. Feb. 2014: 2223. Print.
Elmify. “@maureenjohnson: One big castle, one Danish invasion, and one ZANY boyfriend—what’s
a girl to do? HAMLET #isitchicklit.” 5 Feb. 2013, 6:06 a.m. Tweet.
Falls, Kat, Bob Sirott, and Marianne Murciano. Kat Falls and the Young Adult Book Market. WGN
Radio – 720 AM, 2014. WGNradio.com. Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
Fay, Sarah. “After ‘Fifty Shades of Grey,’ What’s Next for Self-Publishing?”. TheAtlantic.com. The
Atlantic. 2 Apr. 2012. Web. 5 Mar. 2014.
Fisher, Sarah. “The Rise and Rise of Young Adult Literature.” Magazine.Pepperdine.edu.
Pepperdine Magazine, Spring 2013. 23 Feb. 2014.
Johnson, Maureen. “The Gender Coverup.” HuffingtonPost.com. The Huffington Post. 7 May 2013.
Web. 24 Feb. 2014.
---. “I Am A Very Dangerous Person.” MaureenJohnsonbooks.com. Maureen Johnson, 27 Apr. 2007.
Web. 21 Apr. 2014.
---. “News Flash: Victory in Bartlesville (Sorta, Kinda).” MaureenJohnsonbooks.com. Maureen
Johnson, 20 Jun. 2007. Web. 21 Apr. 2014.
---. “How NOT To Get Published.” MaureenJohnsonbooks.com. Maureen Johnson, 25 May 2006.
Web. 8 Mar. 2014.
---. “Because You Asked: Part Two of MJ’s How to Get Published Series.”
MaureenJohnsonbooks.com. Maureen Johnson, 24 Jun. 2006. 8 Mar. 2014.
---. “GATSBY: Sure, the parities [sic] are amazing and the clothes are fabulous, but how will Daisy’s
torrid love affair with Gatsby end? #isitchicklit.” 5 Feb. 2013, 5:33 a.m. Tweet.
Kaufman, Leslie. “New Publisher Authors Trust: Themselves.” TheNewYorkTimes.com. The New
York Times. 16 Apr. 2013. Web. 5 Mar. 2014.
Lohmiller, Darcy. “Go Ahead: Judge a Book By Its Cover.” Young Adult Library Services 6.3
(2008): 13-15. Academic Search Complete. Web. 3 Mar. 2014.
Matchar, Emily. “Chick Lit Remixed: The Simple Brilliance of Gender-Flipping.” TheAtlantic.com.
The Atlantic, 7 Aug. 2013. Web. 16 Feb. 2014.
17
Older, Daniel José. “Diversity Is Not Enough: Race, Power, Publishing.” BuzzFeed.com. BuzzFeed,
[publication date]. Web. 21 Apr. 2014.
Perkins, Mitali. “Straight Talk on Race.” School Library Journal 55.4 (2009): 28-32. Academic
Search Complete. Web. 3 Mar. 2014.
Registering a Work (FAQ). U.S. Copyright Office, 28 Oct. 2013. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Sales, Bethany. “Fifty Shades of Grey: The New Publishing Paradigm.” HuffingtonPost.com. The
Huffington Post, 18 Apr. 2013. Web. 9 Mar. 2014.
Simmons, Jerry D. “Publishing 101: What You Need to Know.” WritersDigest.com. Writer’s Digest,
22 Sep. 2009. Web. 5 Mar. 2014.
Sokoll, Talya. “Representations of Trans* Youth in Young Adult Literature: A Report and a
Suggestion.” Young Adult Library Services 11.3 (2013: 23-26. Academic Search Complete.
Web. 8 Mar. 2014.
Sotirakopulos, Trina. Personal interview. 28 Feb. 2014.
Strickland, Ashley. “A Brief History of Young Adult Literature.” CNN.com. Central News Network.
17 Oct. 2013. Web. 16 Mar. 2014.
Turner, Beth (turning_Beth). “When the hubby’s away, will Penelope play? She has to learn to rely
on herself—and to wait for true love. THE ODYSSEY. #isitchicklit.” 5 Feb. 2013, 6:50 a.m.
Tweet.
Weidenfeld, Lisa. “Talking YA Fiction with a Teen Librarian: It’s Not Just for Young Adults!”
Metro.us. Metro News, 20 Oct. 2013. Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
18
Kill to Conserve: Ethical Implications of Trophy Hunting Conservation Measures
By Nicholas Bashqawi
(Honors Philosophy 1110)
O
n the eleventh of January 2014, a permit to kill a black rhinoceros in Namibia was auctioned
off for $350,000. The Dallas Safari Club stated that the purpose of the auction was to raise
funds for the conservation of the black rhinoceros, as well as other threatened and
endangered species.3 Corey Knowlton, the winner of the auction, will be able to hunt a rhino of his
choosing and has made it clear that he will target an individual that is harming other rhinos.12
Conservationists across the United States decried the auction from the moment it was announced,
claiming that hunting an endangered species in the name of preservation is a ridiculous plan. Despite
the various underlying reasons for these protests, the controversial nature of this issue brings about
an opportunity to further examine the trophy hunting strategy of species conservation and
maintenance. For example, one can examine the ethical dilemma brought about by the simple, albeit
critical, question: “What about the individual animal being hunted?” Specifically, can the death and
suffering of an individual be justified by the possibility of a healthier future for its species as a
whole?
Fundamental to any side of this issue is the determination of whether or not trophy hunting is
an effective means of conservation. Statements from executives at the Dallas Safari Club, as well as
from the media, sound well-informed and cast the hunt in a relatively positive light. At the same
time, those conservationists who oppose the hunt also seem to have a valid argument when they talk
of the detrimental effects of hunting. For instance, Ben Carter, the Dallas Safari Club Executive
Director, states: “These bulls no longer contribute to the growth of the population… In many cases,
they will kill younger, non-breeding bulls.”9 When you couple the possible prevention of such
damages with the amount of money hunting auctions can raise, it may seem as though there is no
downside to this method of conservation. As I will lay out later in this argument, though, there is,
indeed, a strong basis for opposing trophy hunting; but first, I will examine if there is any empirical
foundation for the claims made above.
In their paper, “Trophy Hunting of Black Rhino Diceros bicornis: Proposals to Ensure Its
Future Sustainability,” N. Leader-Williams et al. describe the possible benefits of allowing a small
number of black rhinos to be hunted in Namibia and South Africa. According to their study, one of
the reasons that the white rhinos of South Africa continue to increase in number is “limited and
sustainable use, through trophy hunting and live sales.”8 They assert that controlled hunts, sanctioned
by governments after rigorous evaluations, will assist in managing the surplus of male rhinoceroses
and will aid in raising money for furthering conservation efforts. Furthermore, such events would act
as incentives for landowners to manage wildlife on their property. The evidence reveals a positive
correlation between trophy hunting and stable population growth. White and black rhino populations
have both seen population growth in the past few decades, but white rhinos are no longer classified
as a threatened species8, whereas black rhinos are still critically endangered.4
So far I have discussed the claims in favor of trophy hunting, and have examined the
empirical foundations of those assertions. Examining the case in this manner is necessary to prevent
the use of empirical data as a criticism of my argument. I thus make clear my recognition of the
scientific foundation and possible consequences of hunting permit sales, and assert that they cannot
justify the death of an individual animal; but why not? Surely, it would seem, if there is a method of
conservation that is beneficial to a species, which does not sacrifice anything morally significant, it
19
ought to be allowed in order to prevent the greater damage of species extinction. Even this basic
argument, though, leads to another, more fundamental question: why should we, as humans, be
concerned about conserving other species?
One answer to the question of why species conservation matters can be found in the
argument provided by Greg Bognar, in his essay, “Respect for Nature.” Bognar’s analysis of human
attitudes towards nature, albeit short, provides valuable insight as to why we should all care about the
other living beings of our world. He writes: “We should respect other living beings, not for our own
sake or their intrinsic worth but for that sake of our interconnectedness in ecological systems… living
beings are part of ecosystems, and they have value… from the relations they have in those
ecosystems.”2 All living things, including animals, have a specific place in their ecosystem,
contributing to the overall success of other species. Eliminating any one species could have far
reaching effects, possibly even affecting humans.13 Although Bognar rightfully points out the
importance of all living beings, his essay still revolves around human interests. Additionally,
focusing on the interconnectedness of animals and humans places a worth on animals only if they
seem useful to their ecosystem. It may seem an unlikely scenario, but a consequence of worth based
on productiveness in an ecosystem is that it is not particularly wrong to kill off animals that may, at
the time, seem harmful to an ecosystem or area.
In order to truly determine why humans should care about animals and nature, one must be
able to assign, to every individual of a species, some non-arbitrary characteristic that is universal to
humans and animals. I include humans in my definition because if there is some characteristic that is
general enough to apply to all of the various animals, as living beings, it follows that it should be able
to be applied to humans, as well. Ethicist Peter Singer describes exactly such a principle in his book,
“Animal Liberation,” in which he argues against speciesism based on an individual’s ability to suffer:
“If a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into
consideration. No matter what the nature of the being, the principle of equality requires that its
suffering be counted equally with the like suffering- in so far as rough comparisons can be made- of
any other being.”10 Therefore, it is not a being’s intelligence, species, or relative usefulness that make
it worth caring about and protecting, as these are arbitrary and subjective qualifiers which could
easily be shifted to anyone’s liking; rather, a being’s ability to suffer gives it equal standing, in
regards to the interest to live and resist suffering, with humans and other animals. Every individual
has an interest in living a good life, in which suffering is reduced, and that interest cannot be ignored
by morally responsible beings.
We now have the tools to argue for the importance of species conservation, and as a result the
issue of trophy hunting can be analyzed at a deeper level. If a being has some interest in resisting
suffering, it is the duty of a morally responsible individual, viz. a human, to take that interest into
account when making decisions. Furthermore, all beings are interconnected in ecosystems, which
themselves are interconnected, meaning that actions have far reaching consequences and that all
beings play a significant role in nature. Since human activity, such as hunting, pollution, and
deforestation, has had damaging effects on many animal populations, including the African rhinos15,
resulting in suffering, it is our moral obligation, as humans, to work to alleviate that suffering.
Returning to the earlier assertion that any conservation method, which does not sacrifice anything
morally significant, ought to be pursued in order to prevent species extinction, one can see that it is a
valid statement. One must recognize, though, the qualifying statement, borrowed in part from
Singer’s “Famine, Affluence, and Morality,”11 that nothing of moral significance can be sacrificed in
the process of conservation. Singer takes great care to highlight the importance of fulfilling one’s
moral obligations with moral actions, so as to prevent others from taking his argument to the absurd
conclusion that one may pursue any course of action, as long as it is beneficial to some person or
group. Acknowledging that one ought not to use immoral means to achieve a goal builds a solid
foundation for conservation arguments. As a result, we can eliminate generally unacceptable
20
situations, such as killing factory owners and workers for polluting.
Keeping in mind that nothing of moral significance be sacrificed in the name of conservation,
and that all beings have an interest to live and avoid suffering, it becomes clear that the basic
argument suggested for supporting trophy hunting, that any conservation method be used if it can
prevent species extinction, is actually an argument against hunting. If one wishes to help recover the
rhino populations, as they ought to, due to the suffering inflicted by human activities, they by all
means should pursue any methods that can help produce sustainable population growth, as long as
they do not sacrifice anything morally significant in the process. While trophy hunting has been
positively correlated with population recovery, it is not a viable conservation option as it does not
take into account the suffering of the animal that is to be hunted. Indeed, if we are to accept that
animals feel pain, suffer, and have some interest in living, it would be ridiculous to disregard those
items in the name of helping the species. One cannot claim to have the best interest of a species in
mind if they cannot recognize the most basic interest in living and not suffering.
I foresee two major criticism of my assertions, both of which I will address at present. One
criticism that may be posed is that the animal will be killed in such a way that will minimize its
suffering, and that the targeted animal may be one which is harming other rhinos. In response to the
assertion that the animal will be killed in a humane way, I argue that it can never be guaranteed that a
shot will not miss its mark, or that a certain method, which we hold to be humane, will actually
minimize the animals suffering. Even if such a claim could be made, and it was found that the animal
would not suffer, one still cannot justify ending the life of a being who has some interest in not
dying. That the rhino may be harming others is a more interesting criticism because it implies that a
greater number of rhinos will suffer if the life of one is not taken. As a primarily utilitarian argument,
though, it fails to take into account the many subtleties of the issue. If we take as fact that the
selected rhino is a danger to other members of its species, and that it causes suffering beyond itself,
we must step back and analyze why this behavior seems to occur in rhino populations. As a start, it
obviously cannot be asserted that the rhino is evil or misguided, since animals do not have a moral
capacity and follow an instinctual, natural lifestyle. It can therefore be safely said that violent male
rhinos act either from instinct, or due to some disease. Although it is nearly impossible, without
further scientific investigation, to determine which is to blame, it seems more likely, due to the
frequency of violent behavior, that instinct drives certain male rhinos to harm others of their species.
One may still wish to say that even if the behavior is instinctual, it is causing multiple individuals to
suffer and must be stopped. If that were the case, then one also ought to kill all predatory animals and
certain insects, which eat their mates and others of their kind. I think most people would agree that
killing off all predatory species and insects would be a highly disturbing course of action, and so it
does not make sense to kill on the basis of instinctual violence. It also does not seem wise to
challenge the systems of nature which have kept animal populations in proper balance since before
humans existed, or at least had any significant impact.
The second criticism I will address is the defense of the rights of hunters and cultural values.
Brought to the table in the debate over the rhino auction, and indeed in any dispute over hunting
animals, are the interests of hunters worldwide. Even the Dallas Safari Club’s mission statement, “to
conserve wildlife and wilderness lands, to educate youth and the general public and to promote the
rights and interests of hunters worldwide,”14 includes a clause about hunters. While a general
assessment of hunter’s rights is beyond the scope of this argument, I will examine the interests of
hunters in regards to conservation trophy hunting, specifically of the black rhino. As rhinos are not a
primary food source, and their conservation is largely funded by governments and organizations, it
does not make sense to say that one can justify killing a rhino for food. There are a large number of
food sources other than animals to begin with, as Singer points out10, but there are also many other
animals which are commonly used for food. Although I do not agree with the point to which Singer
carries his argument, as there are circumstances, which cannot be extirpated here for the sake of
21
space and coherence, that warrant hunting for food, I do find that if one cannot justify killing an
animal for sustenance, it would be even less reasonable to hunt it for sport or trophy. The so called
right of a hunter to gain material satisfaction does not outweigh the suffering and death of the animal.
Furthermore, many hunters, like the Dallas Safari Club, say that they have respect for animals and
conservation efforts. If that is the case, which I do not doubt that it is, hunters need to recognize that
in order to respect the animal, they ought to respect its interests in living and avoiding pain.
Cultural values are, in and of themselves, also an insufficient reason to end an animal’s life.
Negotiating the weight of religion and tradition is always difficult, since it carries with it the inability
to disprove or discredit the intangibilities of spirituality, something which many modern philosophers
choose to ignore in order to simplify their arguments. For this argument, though, it is not necessary to
directly contradict religion or culture. The main point of concern comes from Southeast Asia, where
it is believed that rhino horns possess medicinal properties.3 Rhino horns also contain ivory, which is
a large part of traditional Chinese art and culture.6 The reason I say that it is not necessary to
contradict religion or culture is that, first of all, there exists a plethora of medicines and treatment
methods other than rhino horn. Even if the horns contain some form of medicine, there are other
ways to treat patients. In regards to Chinese culture, the recent expansion of the middle class has led
to the creation of ivory factories, which are anything but traditional.6 Materialism, more than
traditional values, drives the current market for ivory art. If there is still a demand for the traditional
practice of ivory sculpting, there are ways to remove rhino horns and elephant tusks without killing
the animals.
Now that it has been established that the death of an individual animal cannot be justified,
based on the animal’s interest in a life with limited suffering, by conservation efforts, hunter’s rights,
or cultural values, I will put at ease any doubts as to the financial survival of conservancies.
Conservation organizations and government agencies provide most of the financial support needed
for conservation programs. According to one study, “foreign donors such as USAID have played a
major role in providing financial support for conservancy development since the early 1990s.”7
While hunting programs, particularly in Namibia, provide a source of additional income for the
country and its reserves7, removing them would not have as much of an impact as some may think.
Tourist expenditures on park entrance fees, safaris, and conservancy funds also generate large
amounts of revenue.1 Barbara King, a professor at the College of William and Mary, suggests that
instead of auctioning off a hunting permit, organizations should auction permits for wildlife
photography safaris to prevent the hunting of endangered species.5 Although hypothetical, King’s
idea is evidence of the existence of creative fundraising solutions that take into consideration the
interests of animals.
Overall, the recent auctioning of the rhino hunting permit must serve as a point of reflection
for all of us as human beings. In order to successfully protect and conserve the species damaged by
human activity, we must revise our understanding of animals, hunting, and the purpose of
conservancies. If the practice of trophy hunting as a conservation method continues unquestioned, I
fear that people will not begin to recognize, at a conscious level, that animals, like humans, have an
interest in living and avoiding suffering that we as moral beings cannot ignore. I cannot help but
agree with Singer that it is a great challenge to overcome the preconceptions of one’s time10, but it is
a challenge that we ought to take on together in order provide a better future for non-human animals.
22
Works Cited
1. Barnes, J. I., C. Schier, and G. Van Rooy. “Tourists’ Willingness to Pay for Wildlife Viewing and
Wildlife Conservation in Namibia.” South African Journal of Wildlife Research 29.4 (1999):
101-11. Web.
2. Bognar, Greg. “Respect for Nature.” Ethics, Policy and Environment 14.2 (2011): 147-149. Taylor
and Francis. Web.
3. “Black rhino hunt permit auctioned in US.” BBC.com. British Broadcasting Service, 12 Jan. 2014.
Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
4. Emslie, R. “Diceros bicornis.” IUCN. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2014. <http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/6557/0>.
5. King, Barbara J. “Why We Need Compassionate Conservation.” npr.org. NPR, 13 Jan. 2014.
Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
6. Levin, Dan. “From Elephants’ Mouths, an Illicit Trail to China.” The New York Times 1 Mar 2013:
A1. Web.
7. Nelson, Fred, and Arun Agrawal. “Patronage or Participation? Community-based Natural
Resource Management Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Development and Change 39.4
(2008): 557-85. Web.
8. N. Leader-Williams et al. “Trophy Hunting of Black Rhino Diceros bicornis: Proposals to Ensure
Its Future Sustainability.” Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 8 (2005): 1-11.
Taylor and Francis. Web.
9. “Permit to hunt endangered rhino sells for $350,000 despite protests.” Reuters. Issues &
Controversies. Facts On File News Services, 12 Jan. 2014. Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
10. Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. Print.
11. Singer, Peter. “Should We Trust Our Moral Intuitions?” project-syndicate.org. Project Syndicate,
n.d. Web.
12. “To Save The Black Rhino, Hunting Club Bids On Killing One.” npr.org. NPR, 29 Dec. 2013.
Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
13. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. “Why Save Endangered Species?” Endangered Species. U.S. Fish
& Wildlife Service, Jul. 2005. Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
<http://www.fws.gov/endangered/esa/library/pdf/Why_Save_Endangered_Species_Brochure.
pdf>.
14. “Who We Are.” biggame.org. Dallas Safari Club, 2013. Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
<http://biggame.org/who-we-are/>.
15. WWF. World Wildlife Fund, 2014. Web. 30 April 2014. <http://worldwildlife.org/species/blackrhino>.
23
The Role of Discontent in Communism's Downfall:
An Analysis of How We Survived Communism and Even Laughed
by Harry Bodell
(History 2235)
A
fter reading Karl Marx's Communist Manifesto, the perks of communism may appear
limitless. After listening to the declarations of Joseph Stalin, Mao Tse Tung, and other
communist leaders, a communist society may seem like an ideal society. Indeed, many
figures throughout history have attempted to spread a common belief- that communism is the correct
path for a society to follow. However, just by reading the title of Slavenka Drakulic's memoir How
We Survived Communism and Even Laughed, one can begin to understand the different perspective
held by those who lived under the tight grip of communism. Life under communism was not ideal, as
Marx, Stalin, Mao, and others had claimed. Life under communism was something that needed to be
survived. Drakulic's memoir opens a window into the realities of life for an average member of
Soviet-controlled communist society. By considering the failures of communism pertaining to basic
human needs, individual freedoms, jealousy toward other lifestyles, and the treatment of women,
Drakulic's work paints a very clear picture of the downfall of communism- that the system pushed its
people into a state of disapproval and ultimately destroyed their faith in communist society.
In order to begin to understand how communism pushed its followers away, one must
consider the system's failure to provide for basic human needs. After all, individuals are unlikely to
fall in love with a system that cannot provide them with food or economic stability. While supporters
of the system claimed that communism provided a better standard of living for society, Drakulic's
writing tells a very different story. Drakulic writes that members of communist society lived under "a
poverty in which the whole country is deprived, everybody is poor, a poverty when to be poor and
deprived is a state of life that hardly ever changes" (189). Economic prosperity was virtually
impossible to achieve. Everybody was forced into a state of perpetual economic struggle. This
struggle manifested itself in the availability of food. Food was not available in excess like it is in the
aisles of an American grocery store today. It was unavailable to the extent that nobody thought in
terms of food being good or bad. Drakulic explains that "the word 'like' is not the best way to explain
the food situation (or any situation) in Poland" (13), as individuals had to prioritize finding and
consuming food over enjoying food. The communist system itself seemed to prioritize the wrong
products. Products like milk and water, two very important nutritional products, were not readily
available to most people. However, "There may be neither milk nor water, but there is sure to be a
bottle of Coke around" (13). Fundamentally, communist society placed its followers in a state where
their basic needs were difficult to satisfy. This condition expanded beyond the availability of food,
water, and milk. Drakulic points out that "Every mother in Bulgaria can point to where communism
failed, from the failures of the planned economy (and the consequent lack of food, milk), to the lack
of apartments, child-care facilities, clothes, disposable diapers, or toilet paper" (18). Not only does
Drakulic list the other basic needs that were not provided for- the need for clothing, housing, and
even bathroom products- but she also reminds the reader that these shortcomings were not hidden
under the rug. Everybody knew about them. Everybody could point them out. As communist society
failed to take care of its people, faith in the system was left to slowly corrode.
Not only does Drakulic's memoir illustrate how people were deprived of what they needed to
live well, but it also illustrates how those same people were deprived of the individual freedoms they
desired. Fundamentally, individual life choices were subject to the communist government's control.
24
While politics may seem quite distant in capitalist societies, inside communist society "politics never
becomes abstract. It remains a palpable, brutal force directing every aspect of our lives, from what
we eat to how we live and where we work. Like a disease, a plague, an epidemic, it doesn't spare
anybody" (17). Indeed, those living under communism had virtually no say in how they lived their
lives. Individualism was essentially forced out of society, as "To be yourself, to cultivate
individualism, to perceive yourself as an individual in a mass society is dangerous. You might
become living proof that the system is failing" (26). Individuals did not have the freedom to be their
own person. After all, communism was based upon the forced equality of people within a society in
order to do away with social barriers. This forced equality was factored into everyday life, all the
way down to an individual's appearance. As Drakulic explains that "everyone is wearing the same
thing, not because they want to, but because there is nothing else to buy" (26), it becomes clear that
communist society aimed to limit the ways in which people could be different. That meant limited
clothing options. That meant that women would not be able to wear make-up. Indeed, "Without a
choice of cosmetics and clothes, with bad food and hard work and no spare time, it wasn't at all hard
to create the special kind of uniformity that comes out of an equal distribution of poverty and the
neglect of people's real needs. There was no chance for individualism- for women or men" (23), as
was seemingly the system's goal. The communist system appeared to be incredibly disheartening to
those within its grip. Without providing for individual freedoms, Drakulic explains that "What
communism instilled in us was precisely this immobility, this absence of a future, the absence of a
dream, of the possibility of imagining our lives differently" (7). Under such conditions, it cannot
come as a surprise that people would lose faith in communism. In reading Drakulic's words, it cannot
come as a surprise that the communist system pushed people so far away that there would someday
be a crisis.
Had those under communist control not been the only people suffering in these ways, perhaps
the system would not have corroded as it did. If the Americans and Western European people were
being deprived of their basic needs and freedoms as well, then at least communist society wouldn't
seem uniquely unjust. However, that was simply not the case. Those living under the shadow of the
Soviet Union were still able to see the light provided in other nations. Drakulic best demonstrates this
in the case of Vogue Magazine. The beauty inside such a foreign magazine was difficult to
understand for women like Drakulic. She writes that "Living under such conditions and holding
Vogue magazine in your hands is a very particular experience- it's almost like holding a pebble from
Mars" (27). The mere reality that such beauty was attainable elsewhere was heartbreaking. Drakulic
goes on by writing, "I guess that the average Western woman... still feels a slight mixture of envy,
frustration, jealousy, and desire while watching this world of images... But tomorrow she can at least
go buy what she saw... Here, you can't. Here, the images make you hate the reality you live in" (28).
Jealousy rendered life under communism even more unbearable. To know that what they were being
deprived of was readily available and embraced in other nations- often nearby nations- was
maddening. To know that seemingly the only factor standing in the way of living a similar lifestyle
was the communist system made it even easier to turn against the claims and directions of the
government.
While these troublesome conditions affected men and women alike, women in particular
were pushed into disapproval of the communist system. Communist leadership and even Drakulic
herself would be quick to point out that "women were equal under the law" (23). After all,
communism's goal of universal equality would not be possible otherwise. However, this attempt to
prove both genders equal was not always in women's interest. Drakulic points out that women "had
to work like men, proving that they were equal even physically" (23), and many would even say that
women were made to do most of the work in communist society. Furthermore, women were deprived
of their natural character. Most women want to embrace at least some aspects of femininity.
However, "the communist ideal was a robust woman who didn't look much different from a man. A
25
nicely dressed woman was subject to suspicion, sometimes even investigation" (23). Women were so
masculinized that Drakulic remembers she heard "repeatedly from women in Warsaw, Budapest,
Prague, Sofia, East Berlin: 'Look at us- we don't even look like women" (31). It became clear that
women were not looked after in the communist system despite any claims of equality. After all,
women lived under "a vision in which their needs- what with Ideology, Politics, and Economicswere nowhere near the top" (47). While women may not have been able to set the Soviet Union and
its communist system on a path toward collapse all alone, the way that they were treated under
communism certainly pushed public morale to newfound lows.
Ultimately, the Soviet Union would be destined to collapse- and with it, communism's grip
on Eastern Europe. How We Survived Communism and Even Laughed shines a spotlight on perhaps
the most significant factor in that collapse. The communist system pushed away those it needed in
order to function. By failing to provide for the people's basic needs, failing to recognize the common
desire for individual freedom, failing to consider the people's jealousy toward other societies, and
failing to change the treatment of women, the communist system forced society to lose faith and turn
its back on the words of Marx, Stalin, Mao, and others who had declared communism to be the ideal
system of living. In Drakulic's words, the communist system was "invented to make you believe that
you- not the government or the party- are to blame... set up to internalize guilt, blame, failure, or fear,
to teach you how you yourself should censor your thoughts and deeds" (6). Unfortunately for
communist leadership, individuals do not enjoy living under such standards, and the collective
discontent of the people would contribute greatly to the collapse of what was once a major world
power.
Work Cited
Drakulic, Slavenka. How We Survived Communism & Even Laughed. New York: Perennial, 1993.
26
Today’s Registered Nurse
by Kellie Brennan
(English 1102)
T
he days of female nurses in white uniforms, simply present to be an assistant to doctors, are
long over. Nursing is now a competitive, versatile career that is attracting both female and
male students across the country. With enticing education opportunities, salaries, job
outlooks, duties, settings, specialties and more, a career as a registered nurse is looking better than
ever. Students with “[t]he desire ‘to make a difference, to do more than just have a job’” are attracted
to nursing as well (Graduate qtd. in Vallano 10). Whether a career as a registered nurse interests you,
or you simply want to learn more, continue reading this chapter to find out what it takes to become a
successful registered nurse.
Nursing is a practice as old as time; caring for others is a part of human nature. However, the
true founder of the modern profession of nursing is Florence Nightingale. The American Diabetes
Association newsletter reports that Nightingale, an upper class British woman of the 1800s,
“dedicate[d] her life to nursing the sick” (Mazur). While her career began by receiving “some
medical training” and “running a small London hospital,” her true success began during the 1854
Crimean War. During this brutal war between Britain, Turkey, and Russia, there were many deaths
and “thousands [of soldiers] were wounded and dumped in a British military hospital in nearby
Scutari, Turkey.” The hospitals of this time were filthy and infested with rats, spreading diseases
easily. Florence Nightingale was contacted to help this British military hospital in Turkey. She
brought forty women with her, and created a new kind of hospital: “She looked into the smallest
details, seeing that men, floors, walls, and bedding were cleaned, rats and bugs gone, and sanitation
introduced. She found a real cook to prepare hot healthy meals and bought fresh vegetables with her
own money.” By reforming this hospital, she gained respect. Later on, Nightingale “opened the first
nursing school” where nurses “wore clean uniforms, attended classes, read medical books, bandaged
wounds, assisted in surgery, and even delivered babies.” Florence Nightingale truly “made nursing a
trained, respected, and valued profession” by reforming hospitals and opening nursing schools.
In the United States, the Civil War era in the late 1800s is what really changed the view of
nurses. Hospitals became more prevalent during this time, employed by passionate, hardworking,
women nurses. Following Florence Nightingale’s lead, U.S. nurses worked to make hospitals more
organized, sanitary, and respected. Doris Weatherford, writing for the National Women’s History
Museum newsletter, explains, “The war thus led to greater respect for nurses, something that
Congress acknowledged in 1892, when it belatedly passed a bill providing pensions to Civil War
nurses. More important, the war served as the beginning of moving the profession from the home to
the hospital and clinic. The result was an explosion of nursing schools in the late nineteenth century.”
By starting nursing schools and providing pensions for nurses working in hospitals, nursing became
an attractive professional career in the United States.
What exactly does a registered nurse do? A simple description of a nurse’s job: “RNs provide
and coordinate patient care, educate patents and the public about various health conditions, and
provide advice and emotional support to patients and their family members” (United States…
“Registered Nurses”). RNs work in many different settings and specialties, but most typically
complete the following duties: “Record patients’ medical histories and symptoms, [a]dminister
patients’ medicines and treatments, [s]ets up plans for patients’ medicines and treatments, [s]et up
plans for patients’ care or contribute to existing plans, [c]onsult with doctors and other healthcare
27
professionals, [o]perate and monitor medical equipment, [h]elp perform diagnostic tests and analyze
results, [t]each patients and their families how to manage illnesses or injuries, [and] [e]xplain what to
do at home after treatment.” Of course, this is just a basic description of duties; nurses can specialize
to have more specific responsibilities.
In addition to duties, an interesting fact that not everyone considers is the important qualities
a registered nurse should have: “Critical-thinking skills, [c]ompassion, [d]etail oriented, [e]motional
stability, [o]rganizational skills, [p]hysical stamina, [s]peaking skills.” These qualities are important
because nursing is a difficult, demanding career. If these qualities describe you, nursing might be the
right career for you.
One of the advantages of becoming a registered nurse is the versatility of the career. RNs can
work in many settings: “Registered nurses work in hospitals, physicians' offices, home healthcare
services, and nursing care facilities. Others work in correctional facilities, schools, clinics, or serve in
the military” (United States…“Registered Nurses”). As well, there are many specialties including
“critical care nurse, emergency nurse, hospice/palliative care nurse, labor and delivery staff nurse,
neonatal nurse, nephrology nurse, nurse educator, nurse executive, oncology nurse, orthopedic nurse,
perioperative [operating room] (O.R.) nurse, psychiatric/mental health nurse, [and] school nurse”
(“Registered Nurse (RN)”).
The following specialties of nurses typically work in fast-paced, emergency environments in
hospitals: critical care nurse, emergency nurse, and preoperative O.R. nurse. A critical care nurse is a
“specialty within nursing that deals specifically with human responses to life-threatening problems”
(Nurses for a Healthier Tomorrow). These nurses “practice in settings where patients require
complex assessment, high intensity therapies and interventions, and continuous nursing vigilance.”
In a hospital setting, you may find a critical nurse in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) floor. Specializing
as an emergency nurse involves “rapid assessment and treatment when every second counts,
particularly during the initial phase of acute illness and trauma.” Emergency nurses are found in the
Emergency Room (ER) of a hospital. Perioperative operating room (O.R.) nurses “provide surgical
patient care by assessing, planning, and implanting the nursing care patients receive before, during
and after surgery.” These nurses will work in the operating room. Of course, this is just a brief
overview of some of the specialties possible for registered nurses in the emergency departments of a
hospital. As a nursing student, specializing as an emergency nurse is what interests me. The
combination of a fast-paced environment and never knowing what will come through the door seems
like an exciting career.
Another important department that interests many nursing students is working with babies.
Labor and delivery staff nurses “care for women who are laboring, having complications of
pregnancy or have recently delivered” (Nurses for a Healthier Tomorrow). These nurses would be
found in floors of hospitals that are dedicated to labor and delivery. Similarly, a neonatal nurse
“works in a nursery” with newborns. These newborns are usually “small for their age, premature, or
sick term infants who require high technology care, such as ventilators, special equipment or
incubators, or surgery.” Labor and delivery staff nurse and neonatal nurse specialties are also fastpaced environments in hospitals.
Not all hospital nurses work in fast-paced, emergency environment. The following are
specialties that are in hospitals, but are not emergency departments: nephrology nurse, nurse
executive, oncology nurse, and orthopedic nurse. To begin, “[n]ephrology nurses use the nursing
process to care for patients of all ages who are experiencing, or at risk for, kidney disease” (Nurses
for a Healthier Tomorrow). In a hospital, nephrology nurses would work on a floor with only kidney
patients, or be assigned to the rooms with these patients. Nurse executives are the bosses of other
nurses, requiring skills such as “collaboration, coaching, mentoring, diversity, co-creating,
communicating and coordinating outcomes management, and enabling the spirit of the community.”
Nurse executives may be in charge of an entire floor of nurses, or nurses within a certain specialty in
28
a hospital. An oncology nurse “encompasses the roles of direct caregiver, educator, consultant,
administrator, and researcher” of cancer patients. An oncology nurse would work with oncologists,
doctors specializing in cancer, and work on cancer floors of a hospital. Nurses specializing in
orthopedics study “musculosketeletal health care by promoting excellence in orthopedic research,
education, and nursing practice.” Orthopedic nurses may work on various floors of the hospital
including ER, surgery, pediatrics, adult, and more. While these specialties are not the emergency
departments in hospitals, they are still very important.
In addition to hospitals, specialized nurses can be found in other facilities. A specialty in
hospice/palliative care focuses “on comprehensive physical, psychosocial, emotional, and spiritual
care to terminally ill persons and their families” (Nurses for a Healthier Tomorrow). Hospices, or at
home hospice care, are caring facilities for elderly people who are dying, with no chance of recovery.
As a nurse educator, nurses “combine expertise and a passion for teaching into rich and rewarding
careers.” Nurse educators work for universities and colleges to teach nursing students. Also in the
educational system are school nurses who work to “promote student and staff health and safety.”
They work with students at elementary and high schools.
Personally, a specialty that interests me is psychiatric-mental health. Treating patients with
abnormal psychology disorders such as anorexia (an eating disorder) and addiction seems both
challenging and rewarding. Registered nurses specializing in psychiatric-mental health “work with
individuals, families, groups, and communities to assess mental health needs, develop diagnoses, and
plan, implement, and evaluate nursing care” (Nurses for a Healthier Tomorrow). Psychiatric-mental
health nurses may work in rehabilitation centers for mental disorders, psychiatrists’ offices,
psychiatric floor of a hospital, and more.
A good education is an important requirement of today’s nurses: “Registered nurses usually
take one of three education paths: a bachelor’s of science degree in nursing (BSN), an associate’s
degree in nursing (ADN), or a diploma from an approved nursing program” (United
States…“Registered Nurses”). Many four-year universities offer nursing as a major to complete a
BSN. Some community colleges, such as College of DuPage, offer an associate’s degree in nursing.
If you are thinking about becoming a nurse, make sure you are prepared for the course load: “In all
nursing education programs, students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, chemistry,
nutrition, psychology, and other social and behavioral sciences, as well as liberal arts” and participate
in “supervised clinical experience.” A BSN will take “4 years to complete; ADN and diploma
programs usually take 2 to 3 years to complete.”
So, which education pathway is best? It all depends on your future goals as a nurse, and your
time frame. Personally, I am a nursing student working towards my BSN at Elmhurst College. I
decided to pursue a BSN because I did not decide on nursing until my sophomore year of college, I
want to earn a bachelor’s degree, I plan to continue my education after my bachelor’s, and because I
believe that most employers would prefer a bachelor’s degree to an associate’s degree.
After graduating from your chosen program, it is time to complete your state’s license,
certification, and registration requirements: “To become licensed, nurses must graduate from an
approved nursing program and pass the National Council Licensure Examination, or NCLEX-RN.”
Each state may have additional requirements regarding license and certification for RNs: be
prepared.
After becoming a RN, nurses can continue their education. Once RNs have completed their
BSN, they can continue to their master’s of science in nursing (MSN) and even a doctor of
philosophy (PhD) in nursing. An interesting fact is that with an advanced education, nurses become
advanced practice registered nurses (APRNs) which “is an umbrella term given to a registered nurse
who has at least a Master’s educational and clinical practice requirements beyond the basic nursing
education and licensing required of all RNs and who provides at least some level of direct care to
patient populations” (NursingWorld). The following is a list from the American Nurses Association
29
of typical specialties as an APRN:
Nurse practitioner (NP) – Working in clinics, nursing homes, hospitals, or private
offices, nurse practitioners provide a wide range of primary and preventive health
care services, prescribe medication, and diagnose and treat common minor illnesses
and injuries.
Certified nurse-midwife (CNM) – CNMs provide well-woman gynecological and
low-risk obstetrical care in hospitals, birth centers, and homes.
Clinical nurse specialist (CNS) – Working in hospitals, clinics, nursing homes,
private offices, and community-based settings, CNSs handle a wide range of physical
and mental health problems. They also work in consultation, research, education, and
administration.
Certified registered nurse anesthetists (CRNA) – The oldest of the advanced nursing
specialties, CRNAs administer more than 65 percent of anesthetics given to patients
each year.
Registered Nurses and other advanced specialties are not the only types of nurses. Starting at
the bottom of the nursing totem pole are Certified Nursing Assistants (CNAs). CNAs work under the
supervision of Registered Nurses (RNs), and typically perform the following duties: “Clean and
bathe patients or residents, [h]elp patients use the toilet and dress, [t]urn, reposition, and transfer
patients between beds and wheelchairs, [m]easure patients’ vital signs, such as blood pressure and
temperature, [s]erve meals and help patients eat” (United States…“Nursing Assistants”). To become
a CNA, students “must complete a state-approved education program in which they learn the basic
principles of nursing and complete supervised clinical work. These programs are found in high
schools, community colleges, vocational and technical schools, hospitals, and nursing homes.” The
length of these programs vary based on the state’s requirements, but can usually be completed in a
few months. Once you have completed a program, “nursing assistants [CNAs] take a competency
exam.” After completing the program and exam, CNAs may begin working. If becoming a RN is not
the path for you, perhaps becoming a CNA is a better fit.
With the bad economy, college students across the U.S. are worried about salary and job
outlook for their future careers. The Occupational Outlook Handbook, published by the U.S. Bureau
of Labor and Statistics (BLS), reports that “[t]he median annual wage for a registered nurse was
$65,470 in May 2012” (United States…“Registered Nurses”). “The best-paid 10 percent of RNs
made more than $94,720, while the bottom 10 percent earned less than $45,040,” reports Jada Graves
of U.S. News & World Report magazine. Even more exciting is that “employment of registered
nurses is projected to grow 19 percent from 2012 to 2022, faster than average for all occupations”
(United States…“Registered Nurses”). This growth rate anticipates “526,800 new jobs” (Graves).
With these positive statistics, students studying nursing can be hopeful for their futures.
Before deciding to become a registered nurse, students should be aware of the controversies
in the field. A common controversy in nursing is the stereotype that all nurses are women, not men.
Annette T. Vallano, MS, RN, APRN, BC, reports an interesting fact in her book, Your Career in
Nursing: “According to the most recent National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses in 2008, 6.6
percent of the American RN work force was male” (105). Vallano explores possibilities of why there
are so few men in nursing. She identifies the “public’s image of nurses” as a “’her’ in a white
uniform and cap” (109). This image of a female nurse in a white uniform and cap is no longer
prevalent in today’s nursing world, but is still associated with the career because of the lack of nurses
in media. The reality is that nurses are not portrayed in the news today. Doctors are cited for articles,
journals, newspapers and news broadcastings instead of nurses. The evidence of this controversy is
shown by the research project conducted in 1997 by Sigma Theta Tau International, the international
30
honors society of nursing:
1. On average, nurses were cited only 3 percent of the time in hundreds of health
related articles culled from 16 major news publications.
2. In seven newspaper surveyed, nurses and nursing were referenced by only 4
percent of the healthcare articles examined. The few references to nurses or nursing
were mostly in passing.
3. Articles examined during the study referred to both physicians and healthcare
academics as doctors. No example was found where a nurse with a doctorate was
referred to as doctor. (110)
Until the public’s image of nursing as females in white uniforms and caps changes, men in nursing
will continue to feel excluded, and female nurses will feel diminished.
As a demanding career, nursing has its downside. A career in nursing may leave you burnt
out from your daily work, which involves long hours, difficult patients, draining paperwork, and
more. In the article “Six Signs It May Be Time for a Nursing Career Change,” Debra Wood
introduces the possibility that nursing may not be the right career for everyone. Wood provides us
with the “six signs that it might be time to look at some new career options” instead of nursing. She
includes the following six signs: “1. Feeling burned out or exhausted…, 2. Hating the idea of going
to work…, 3. Craving a change…, 4. Wanting to know you made a difference…, 5. Worrying about
patient or personal safety…, 6. Harboring a burning desire to move up.” These signs reveal that
nursing does not always work out for everyone.
Working as a registered nurse can be stressful. Patti DeNichols, RN, BSN, M.Ed., works as a
school nurse at Schiesher Elementary and Lisle Junior High School in Lisle, IL. When asked if she
would describe her job as stressful, she replied:
At certain times it is especially stressful like the beginning of the school year. My
school year starts about one week earlier than the teachers’ does because I need to
have the appropriate health information ready for the teachers when their students
arrive so they are prepared. This could include allergies, emergency plans, 504 plans
[plans developed to ensure that a child who has a disability identified under the law
and is attending an elementary or secondary educational institution receives
accommodations that will ensure their academic success and access to the learning
environment], and pertinent medical information. Various times throughout the year,
many reports are due but the big day is Oct. 15th, which is mandatory state required
exclusion day for any student not in compliance with the required physical exam and
immunizations.
As you can tell, nurses have responsibilities that can make their jobs time consuming and stressful.
DeNichols shows that the most stress comes from preparation: making sure teachers are aware of
student allergies, creating emergency plans for students with health problems such as seizures or
heart defects, making 504 plans to ensure disabled students are receiving accommodations, and other
medical information.
Carol Schmidtke, RN, also works as a school nurse at Schiesher Elementary and Tate Woods
Elementary in Lisle, IL. After being asked if her job was stressful, she mentioned, “It is not generally
[stressful]. It was at first when I realized that I was often on my own with health decisions. After
years of experience, it is better. It can be stressful with student injuries and parent
conversations/meetings.” Schmidtke shows that with time, a career in nursing will become second
nature. While all careers can be stressful, be prepared to watch for the signs that nursing is not the
31
right career for you.
If you have made it this far in the chapter, nursing must be a career that interests you. Where
can you find more information? The best place to start is by checking out the American Nurses
Association, which is a professional association for American nurses. Founded in 1892, the ANA is
one of the largest and most respected nursing associations in the United States. Membership costs
$191 per year, which includes monthly publications of The American Nurse, American Nurse Today,
and The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing. However, students can still use the site and access
online information without a membership. Other benefits of joining this association include
membership discounts from various companies, professional conferences in areas such as Orlando,
Florida, and educational resources. Nurses, and students studying nursing, can learn more about this
association by accessing this link: www.nursingworld.org.
After reading all of this information, are you still interested in becoming a nurse? DeNichols
encourages students to “go for it! It [nursing] is a wonderful profession you can do the rest of your
life in many different settings and in many different ways.” Opportunities for today’s nurses are
limitless. With the aging baby boomer generation, jobs are opening up for nurses across the country.
The future of nursing is looking bright: the predicted “U.S. nursing shortage will grow to 260,000
registered nurses by 2025” (Vallano 23). While this does mean that jobs are available for future
nurses, it also may lead to an increased workload for all nurses. Nevertheless, nursing is still an
interesting and exciting career. There are many specialties and opportunities for higher education that
nurses of the past could only dream about. Nurses are not merely medical assistants; they are now
diagnosing and treating patients. With advances in medicine and technology, we can only imagine
what tomorrow’s nurse has in store.
Works Cited
DeNichols, Patti. Email interview. 24 Mar. 2014.
Graves, Jada A. “Registered Nurse.” Money Careers. U.S. News & World Report, 2014. Web. 12
Mar. 2014.
Mazur, Marcia Levine. “Did You Know? Lady with the Lamp?.” Diabetes Forecast 56.11 (Nov.
2003): 109. Academic OneFile. Web. 19 Apr. 2014.
Nurses for a Healthier Tomorrow. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013. Web. Apr. 2014.
NursingWorld. American Nurses Association, 2014. Web. 12 Mar. 2014.
“Registered Nurse (RN).” Explore Health Careers. American Dental Education Association, 18 Apr.
2014. Web. 19 Apr. 2014.
Schmidtke, Carol. Email interview. 24 Mar. 2014.
United States. Dept. of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Nursing Assistants and Orderlies.”
Occupational Outlook Handbook. 2014-15 ed. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 8 Jan. 2014.
Web. 19 Apr. 2014.
United States. Dept. of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Registered Nurses.” Occupational
Outlook Handbook. 2014-15 ed. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 8 Jan. 2014. Web. 2 Mar.
2014.
Vallano, Annette T. Your Career In Nursing. New York: Kaplan Publishing, 2011. Print.
Weatherford, Doris. “The Evolution of Nursing.” National Women’s History Museum. National
Women’s History Museum, 28 Aug. 2013. Web. 19 Apr. 2014.
Wood, Debra. “Six Signs It May Be Time for a Nursing Career Change.” NurseZone Newsletter 17
July 2013: 1. CINAHL Complete. Web. 12 Mar. 2014.
32
Sankana Essay
by Kevin Brewton
(Philosophy 1100)
Part I
Question #3
Metaphorical Doodling, Where Necessary
A
common Expo marker darted across the white expanse, leaving behind a short diagonal line
of color. The erasable weapon came back, glancing off the glossy surface eight more times,
until its red gashes formed a six-sided shape with an odd ‘Y’ in its center.
“Now,” said the owner of the hand holding the marker, “What do you see?”
His sole student stared at the white board for a few seconds, before nodding to herself. “I see
a cube,” she stated calmly.
“Really?” the teacher asked, raising an eyebrow, “All I see is a hexagon with the letter ‘Y’
inside it.”
The student studied the board for a few moments, until her eyes widened in understanding.
She looked back to her teacher with a frown on her face. “But it is supposed to be a three
dimensional cube, is it not?”
Her teacher shook his head, holding a stern expression. “What it is and what you see it as are
two completely separate things. Even now, you cannot tell me you are thinking of this image as what
it truly is: some ink on a whiteboard. Instead, you have assigned it shapes, forms, and dimensions
that this small bit of color simply does not possess.”
The student tilted her head in confusion, “I am simply looking at that drawing as we all do: a
form of art. What it is made of does not detract from how I see it.”
The teacher simply shook his head. “What you fail to see is that this same error of perception
exists all around us, in every minute atom of this world. What we ‘see’ is merely an illusion, just as
intangible as the three-dimensional cube you claim exists in this two dimensional board. The only
thing on that surface is ink, just as the only thing present in the universe is Brahman.”
“But,” the student asked, frowning, “how can there be only Brahman when I can clearly see
you standing before me, the ink on this board, and the floor upon which we stand? You would say
that all these tangible things do not exist?”
Her instructor sighed, pointing again to the shape emblazoned upon the board beside him.
“Look at this drawing, is there anything truly real about the ‘cube’? Does the cube have color? Does
it have form? Could you feel it?”
His student furrowed her brow, “Well, the cube is merely an illusion of the ink. But I still see
it, it still exists as a drawing.”
“Wrong,” the master stated, “You are merely confusing the ink’s qualities with the cube’s.
The ink is colorful, tangible, and has existence. The cube is only an illusion, and you know this, yet
still, you defend it.”
“Whether or not the cube is made of ink,” the student replied, “it is still a cube. It is a concept
that I can clearly see in my mind’s eye.”
The teacher scowled, “That is nescience. Your ignorance goes so far as to acknowledge
itself! Your ‘mind’s eye’ is nothing but a further extension of maya, of the great illusion we all
33
experience. The qualities which you assign the cube are in fact those of the ink. And no matter how
much you believe differently, the cube possesses none of them.” He paused, taking a breath as the
student digested his wisdom. He chose to ignore the sour expression on her face as he began to speak
once more.
“It is this same problem of superimposition, of giving the qualities which are Brahman’s
alone to the things we ‘see’ or otherwise ‘experience’ through both our mind and our senses in this
transmigratory existence, that plagues each and every soul caught in this cycle. Nothing exists,
except for Brahman. And therefore when we say something has existence, we are superimposing a
trait which is solely Brahman’s upon an unworthy thing.”
The student maintained her irritation as she spoke, “If what you say is true, why do we see
the world as we do? How does Brahman become everything?”
“I’ve already revealed this to you,” the instructor responded, pointing once more to the
drawing beside him, “You clearly see something other than the simple bit of ink that is present on
this whiteboard. It is in that way that Brahman manifests itself as the universe. It begins as
Unevolved Name and Form, before coalescing into the first of the five elements, Ether, and from
there moving on to become Air, Fire, Water, and Earth. Just as the lines produced by this marker
form together to create complex tapestries of images which grow off of each other with each
successive addition.” He swiftly added five more lines to the board, giving the illusion of a second
cube attached to the right of the first.
The learner looked at the drawing thoughtfully for a few more moments, before once more
speaking. “If that is so, why do you say the world is an illusion? Even if it is entirely Brahman, it is
still ‘evolved name and form’ and thus still existent.”
“Do you not see?” her teacher said, “There are no cubes on this board, no drawings. There is
only ink, and until you comprehend that you will forever see a lie. The world around us is just as
false as this image is. There is no ‘Earth,’ no ‘you’ or ‘me.’ There is simply Brahman. When you at
last come to this understanding you will be set free of the Transmigratory existence, free from this
illusion of individuality and nescience.”
The clock on the wall chimed thrice, causing the student and her teacher to let out sighs.
“Thank you, instructor,” she said, as she rose from her desk, “But it seems I will have to stay trapped
in this beautiful world a while yet.”
Part I
Question #4
Questions and Ethics
“...And in his works, Sankara encourages his students to participate in certain ‘ethical and
moral actions.’ You can find the list on page eighty-eight of Mayeda’s commentary,” the lecturer
droned, standing at his podium before a small group of learners. “The first is the observation of
abstention, which means abstaining from injury, falsehood, theft, incontinence, possession of things,
and—”
The elder glanced up from his notes as the frantic waving of a hand caught his attention.
“Yes?” he asked tiredly.
“Sir!” the young student exclaimed, “How can Sankara advise his followers to perform
actions when he clearly says, on page eighty-five, that all ‘action should be renounced by a seeker
after final release’? When we attain enlightenment, are we not becoming one with Brahman and thus
no longer participating in the action and reaction of the Transmigratory existence?”
The professor blinked, adjusting his spectacles as he processed the rapid-fire speech. “Very
true, young one,” he said after a moment, “This is, in fact, a topic on which the Philosopher
contradicts himself multiple times throughout his writings.”
34
The same child who had questioned him spoke up once more, “Why would he do that?
Didn’t he realize he was asking us to do two completely opposite things?”
The teacher smiled, quickly rearranging the structure of his lecture as he responded. “Yes, it
would have been difficult for him to not have realized that. Sankara’s reasons for this contradiction
could be any number of things, one of which is the fact that anyone studying under him during his
time period would have had to be of the Brahmin, or ‘priest’ caste, of society, and thus already
possess an abundant amount of ‘good’ karma and most likely a fairly strict code of ethics as well.”
He paused, checking to make sure the ten or so pupils present were paying attention.
“However, the reason that Sankara touched upon ethics at all in his writings was most likely
to help those reading his works get to a point in their brief life where they could more easily attain
final release from the cycle. As Mayeda says, on page ninety-four, ‘Sankara’s view of ethics may be
vague or self-contradictory, but this is because its real aim is the highest possible effectiveness in
leading his pupils to the final goal’. So,” the instructor continued, “the contradiction of ethics is used
merely as a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. Sankara only wishes you to follow his
advice in order to further your climb to enlightenment, and then abandon it once you no longer
require moral, karmic actions to prepare you for the renunciation of the illusory world.”
The students pondered that for a few moments as the professor read over his notes. Before
long, a different hand was thoughtfully raised in the air. The teacher nodded towards the inquirer, and
the student asked, “If that is true, then what kinds of things should we do to get to the final release?
Would they not also give us karman if we performed them?”
The master nodded sagely, “Very good questions. What Sankara encourages in terms of
actions and behaviors that could lead us to the final release are, as I said before, abstention in life
from many different and negative actions; austerity, or sternness, in life; improving the concentration
of the mind; allowing the emaciation of the body; and performing regular permanent rites. There are
also things that, while not truly a part of ethics, might benefit you in your climb to escape the cycle.
Parisamkhyana meditation, for instance, is to help you destroy your acquired merit and demerit.
Furthermore, if you have not done so already, a good idea would be to read the Sruti and Smriti
scriptures, and also learn to distance yourself from your body. All of these would help you to clear
your head so that your mind becomes pure until, at long last, you break free of the fallacy of
perception that is the transmigratory existence. However, as you asked, these actions do grant you
karman, and thus force you to participate in the illusion.”
A younger student spoke up as the teacher’s wisdom echoed away in the large hall. “So why
should we do these things? Why would we heap more and more karma onto ourselves if all we are
trying to do is escape the transmigratory existence?”
The teacher frowned at the interruption, but a glance at the clock quickly forced him to
answer it before his learners were left to ponder such things for another week. “As I have said before,
these actions are a means of preparation for the final release. It does not matter if they are ethical or
unethical; after all, many would view life after the final release as ‘unethical’ once the seeker leaves
his family and duties behind. You must use these suggestions as you would a ladder, and climb ever
upwards with such actions until you at last reach salvation. When you have attained your release, you
simply cease all participation in the cycle and knock down the ladder of preparation, as it is no longer
necessary. Actions and behavior are indispensable before one achieves the final release, but once it is
attained they are cast aside in the light of the knowledge that ‘thou art that’ and thus not a part of any
caste or illusion which requires action.”
35
Part II
Analyzing Adi Sankara
Like the student in the first half of Part I, I was eventually able to grasp the concepts that go
into Sankara’s theologically philosophical system of thought, and understand what he thinks and
why. However, I cannot say that I agree with some of the leaps in logic he takes, nor do I put stock in
the scriptures from which he occasionally cites. I can follow his ideology from the concept of
Brahman all the way through to salvation, but there are several spots where I lose my willing
suspension of disbelief and thus reject the conclusions Sankara comes to. That is to say I understand
his system fairly comprehensively, but I do not agree with some of the parts that make it work. The
main points I shall address and attempt to debate are the cause of avidya and the theory—as well as
the practice—of moksha, or salvation from the transmigratory existence. But in order to get to those
things, we must first take a look at Sankara’s Cosmological theory.
Sankara states that Brahman can be described using the theory of ‘neti, neti,’ or, ‘not this, not
this,’ which entails pointing out everything that Brahman can not be and working your way through
the layers of non-eternal things until you at last find the pure, perfect ‘stuff’ behind the world we live
in. Instead of reaching the Buddhist answer of Brahman being nothing, Sankara finds that this
uncaused, unknown being is all things, the ‘One without a second,’ which is the reason that there can
be only only one dimension of reality. Sankara then goes on to say that Atman, which is Brahman—
and also deserves its own definition as ‘That which is You’—is the Pure Consciousness which ties all
of our past and future lives in the transmigratory existence together. He also uses the phrase
‘saccidananda’ to describe It, which is broken down into ‘Being’ (Brahman) - ’Consciousness’
(Atman) - ’Bliss’ (Which Sankara does not accept and ignores unless whatever he is commenting
upon forces him to mention it; he does not believe Brahman to be ‘Blissful’ no matter what his
sacred texts tell him). This is not a ‘division’ of Brahman so much as a way to think about it; similar
to Thomas Aquinas’s God having three facets yet still being ‘one’ person—though of course,
Brahman is vastly different from that deity. Moving forward, the proposition that Brahman and
Atman are both different and non-different, as the sea and its waves are different and non-different, is
certainly an apt metaphor for this idea. To me, this theory of Spiritual Monism is fairly logical, and—
though to my Westernized mind it seems vastly more complicated than the dualism of mind and body
we are familiar with—Brahman and Atman make sense, up to a point.
As I outlined in Question 3, Brahman ‘emanates’ and ‘evolves’ into the physical world, and
Sankara further believes that the ‘reality’ we experience is in fact an illusion caused by avidya—
ignorance, or more specifically the superimposition (or ‘switching of qualities’ which was outlined
during my answer to Question 3) of Atman and non-Atman —whose cause he does not go into much
depth with during his writings. In my humble opinion, this is not a satisfactory explanation for the
world we know. Sankara tries his hardest to preserve the notion of Spiritual Monism—which
declares that there is ultimately only one reality—but Mayeda himself states, “[Sankara’s notion of
Unevolved Name and Form creates a new issue:] What is avidya? This problem gave birth to very
great controversy among the followers of Sankara himself, just as later the problem of the
relationship between Brahman and Atman was to play a central role in the division of the whole
Vedanta school”(25).
The world we live in, or at least experience in our ignorance, is a very imperfect place. So, if
Brahman is the only truth and all else is illusion, where exactly does this false perception come
from? It seems difficult to contemplate how an utterly perfect entity could somehow give rise to a
universe as complex and as wildly shrouded in nescience as our own. Sankara himself deflects the
question of avidya’s origin each and every time one of the pupils in his writings ask it, because he
“knows what the questioner is really asking, but [...] refrains from engaging in endless and profitless
36
speculation on avidya”(80). To Sankara the real issue is earning final release from the cycle, and this
is his real goal to the exclusion of all else—including this rather glaring lack of explanation. Mayeda
points this out several times over the course of his commentary, but yet he also agrees that,
“Indulgence in profitless speculation [on avidya] is nothing but the result of avidya”(80). Despite the
fact that I can see the logic behind this statement—trying to understand where ignorance comes from
is something only someone still caught in the cycle of ignorance would worry about—this still does
not answer the question of nescience’s existence. And thus I cannot help but question the integrity of
Sankara’s Monism which—despite its comprehensiveness—asks us to simply wave away the cause
of all imperfection, evil, suffering, and the rest of the transmigratory existence. However, agreeing to
disagree with the eighth century thinker on this point and accepting the fact that avidya exists, I will
move onto the soteriology of Sankara’s philosophy—his main purpose for writing and teaching.
Once again, I find that I can follow him through this chain of logic up to a point. Sankara
puts forth the theory that each of us is a part of—or rather, One with—Atman, but we are all trapped
in maya—the illusion of the world—and have lost knowledge of Atman due to our nescience. In
order to be saved from avidya, we have to step back from our egos, our “I”-notions, realize that we
are a part of the Pure Consciousness, not an individual, and let go of our false perceptions of reality
to become ‘One with the One’. Now, to me, as a general concept this ‘transmigratory existence’
makes sense. Action gives ‘you’ karma, forces ‘you’ to be reborn as something either better or worse
than what ‘you’ were—a cycle that must be escaped from as it will never cease and you cannot
maintain ‘good’ karma for long—and the only way out of that vicious circle is knowledge, which is
incompatible with action. At least, once I decide to simply accept that the Sruti—scripture ‘heard’ by
ancient vedantic sages—says so, and therefore this theory of how life works must be true, I have little
logic to actually critique here aside from ‘who gave the scriptures the authority to tell the truth?’. So
with that said I shall move onto Sankara’s spin on things.
The main problem I have with Sankara’s soteriology, his path to ‘salvation,’ is two-fold.
First, before I begin to question his methods, I must say I generally disagree with his motivation for
‘final release.’ Given the general idea of Brahman, Atman, maya, and avidya, I can safely say that—
like the girl in my answer to Question 3—I am quite happy to continue enjoying this work of art that
is our world and thus participate merrily in the illusion. In fact, the idea of reincarnation and the
transmigratory existence isn’t all that unattractive to me—not that I put a whole lot of faith in the
theory for, as I stated above, there seems to be little evidence of it aside from the scriptures Sankara
follows.
Now, moving past the motivation behind achieving moksha, I would like to focus on
Sankara’s method for final release. In order to escape the transmigratory existence, the philosopher
believes one must realize tat tvam asi or ‘Thou art That’ and thus recognize the self—the “I”notion—is an illusion based in ignorance. In my opinion, there seems to be a few problems with this
practice. First of all, the concept of ‘renouncing’ the self—one’s identity in this mortal realm—seems
contradictory to me. Sankara writes, “He to whom both ‘I,’ the notion of ‘oneself,’ and ‘my,’ the
notion of ‘one’s own,’ have become meaningless, becomes a knower of Atman” (138). And my
response to this declaration is: who, exactly, is ‘He’? The individual who steps back and declares his
identity and “I”-notion to be false is still an individual, for, if Atman is changeless, how can it
reject—as an action—anything?
Moving on, should this rejection of the individual be possible as Sankara claims, even the
very idea of ‘final release’ seems strange. When a seeker reaches enlightenment and realizes that he
or she is Brahman, they are supposed to simply cease all action in the illusory world. This leaves me
questioning the reason they retain their bodies at all, if they truly are Atman and have completely
given up their worldly “I”-notion. In fact to me it might make more sense if their physical forms
simply evaporated, or were otherwise given up at the same time as their mental identities.
37
But, regardless of that oddity, another point I would like to bring up is the notion that ‘you’
have escaped. Firstly, Sankara states, “...[all] action should be renounced by a seeker after final
release”(85). And I, personally, would think that if one truly does attain moksha, they would no
longer exist as something capable of action. They become One with Atman, and therefore should not
be able to perform any actions at all in the physical realm as they are changeless and eternal. How
can they renounce, which is itself a form of action, anything? Of course, I also question the reverse
of that point. If one escapes the cycle and renounces or rids themselves of avidya—again, the
individual seems to be the one rejecting avidya—how can they be certain that ‘they’ will not simply
enter the transmigratory existence once again as another false “I”-notion? In theory, they have
become One with Atman and ceased to exist as an individual, so what part of them is ‘saved’ exactly?
The Atman behind their ‘self’ should never have been in need of ‘saving’ as it is perfect, and their
“I”-notion was just terminated. ‘Their’—or rather ‘that’—wave of Atman on the sea of Brahman has
returned to its source, yet I see no pressing need for this to happen. In fact, since they are now a
nameless part of Atman once more—or at least have lost whatever separated them from Atman, as
Atman itself cannot change—what is to stop ‘them’ from simply rising again as some other wave,
some other “I”-notion trapped in the transmigratory existence?
This question, and all the others I have voiced here, prevent me from simply accepting
Sankara’s soteriology. I understand that Sankara does not dwell on any possible flaws in his writings
because he is simply trying to help those suffering in transmigratory existence to escape, but this
does not persuade me to turn the same blind eye towards them. Indeed, perhaps I am simply so
entrenched in avidya myself that I cannot see the purity of Sankara’s truths, but if that is the case I
cannot say that I am eager to give it up. The ideas of Immanuel Kant—that reason and experience are
purely what we should use to look at the world—certainly hold far greater appeal to me, for one does
not have to rely on scriptures, or the belief that we should not question things—such as avidya—that
we do not understand, to find meaning in life. Overall, I would not consider myself a follower of
Advaita Vedanta philosophy, as it seems to me both unattractive and bearing some not-negligible
issues. Truly, I am more than content to simply live this illusory life to its fullest, regardless of how
ignorant that they may be.
Written, Revised, and Retroactively Revolutionized by: Kevin Brewton
Post Scriptum: I would like to make a short comparison between Thomas Aquinas and
Sankara that doesn’t really seem to have a place in the main essay. It seems to me like these two
brilliant men wrote for similar and yet very different reasons. Aquinas scribbled away on thousands
of pages for most of his life, trying to logically debate the existence of God, among other things, with
the people of his time. And yet when he supposedly had his vision from God during a church service,
the great thinker never picked up a pen again. Sankara, on the other hand, writes supposedly after he
has already escaped the cycle and achieved moksha. He wants to lead people out of transmigratory
existence and so ‘goes back across the river’ of nescience in order to actively write and teach for his
followers; a regression which I believe he himself states is preposterous. So both philosophers write
in order to help others follow their theological logic, but while both ‘see the light’ of their Ultimate
Beings, they react to it in very different ways. This isn’t really a critique of either philosophers,
merely an intriguing observation that we did not go over in class.
38
Reference
Mayeda, Sengaku (trans & ed). A Thousand Teachings: The Upandesasahasri of Sankara. Albany:
State University of New York Press, 1992.
39
The Effects of Tetracycline and Ibuprofen on Common Duckweed, Lemna minor L.
by Elizabeth Cole
(Honors Biology 1152)
ABSTRACT
tudies are showing that waste water is contaminated with various types of chemicals, such as
pesticides, flame retardants, and pharmaceuticals. The contamination of water with
pharmaceuticals is of growing concern, as water treatment plants are not able to fully remove
these chemicals from drinking water sources, and their effects on aquatic organisms and humans are
unknown. This study looks at how water contaminated with tetracycline and ibuprofen affect the
growth of common duckweed (Lemna minor L). Plants were placed in test tubes, treated with
solutions of the medications, and growth was noted by the number of plants in each test tube after a
five week period. Tetracycline was found to have no effect on plant growth, while ibuprofen had
negative effects. Further testing may need to be conducted to find why this occurred.
S
INTRODUCTION
An increasing number of anthropogenically generated chemicals are being found in waste
water and sludge (Herberer 2002). Studies have tested the quality of treated waste water released into
streams, and have found that they still contain small amounts of chemicals. These chemicals cannot
be fully removed during a normal filtration process, as most water treatment plants are not designed
to remove persistent chemicals (Vergili 2013).
There is concern over the growing amount of pharmaceuticals found in treated waste water
(Jones et al. 2005). Lipid regulators, anti-epileptic, animal growth hormone, and psychotic drugs
have all tested positive in samples of treated waste water. Usually the treated waste water is either
released into nearby surface waters or used for human consumption (Houtman et al. 2013). However,
the effects that pharmaceuticals in drinking water have on humans and aquatic organisms are
unknown (Stackelberg et al. 2004).
This experiment used common duckweed (Lemna minor L., Lemnaceae), an aquatic plant
that is distributed worldwide, as an indicator species to explore how tetracycline and ibuprofen affect
aquatic species. The objective of this experiment was to examine how levels of tetracycline and
ibuprofen similar to those found in drinking water affect duckweed growth.
METHODS
Tetracycline (Mars Fishcare North America, Inc., USA) and ibuprofen (Pfizer Inc., Kings
Mountain, NC0) were the pharmaceuticals used in the treatments for this experiment, and the
experiment was conducted over a period of five weeks. On the first day, 48 test tubes were filled with
55ml of water from a fish tank and three randomly selected duckweed plants were placed into each
test tube. Water from a fish tank was chosen to replicate pond water. Test tubes were divided evenly
into a control, tetracycline, and ibuprofen group. Concentrations of 50µg/ml of tetracycline and
ibuprofen were created to simulate amounts found in drinking water in their respective category. The
plants were then placed on a window sill for the duration of the experiment. Plants were treated twice
with the chemical solutions and were recounted per replicate after five weeks.
Mann-Whitney rank tests were used to compare counts of the chemical treatments to the
control as assumptions of parametric testing could not be met (Zar 1984).
40
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Counts of duckweed did not vary significantly between the control and tetracycline
treatment, but did between the control and ibuprofen treatment (Table 1). Significance was
determined at P<0.05. Overall, plants treated with tetracycline had growth similar to the control, with
no decay in plant numbers. Ibuprofen treated plants exhibited either a decay or showed no growth in
all but two test tubes. Therefore, neutral effects could not be safely rejected.
There are several reasons why these results could have occurred. First, ibuprofen is
composed of various chemicals, including cyclooxygenase inhibitors (Rainsford 2012).
Cyclooxygenase is an enzyme that speeds up the production of chemical messengers called
prostaglandins. Thus, an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase should slow the production of prostaglandins
(Groenewald et al. 1997). Studies have found prostaglandins to have roles in flowering,
photosynthesis, and regulating of cell membrane permeability. The cyclooxygenase inhibitors present
in ibuprofen could have affected the duckweed’s ability for sunlight absorption or nutrient
absorption, resulting in the overall decline in plant numbers. The negative effect of ibuprofen on
duckweed does imply that if waters that supply to irrigation fields get contaminated, it may decrease
crop yields. Also, ibuprofen is an enantiomer, which means that its isomers differ in shape as a result
of an asymmetric carbon. This causes only one of the two isomers to be biologically active because
only molecules of that form can bind to molecules of that organism. Ibuprofen is normally sold as a
mixture of its two enantiomers, both the effective and less effective (Reece et al. 2011). This could
have also influenced the duckweed growth, as some test tubes may have had more ineffective
enantiomer than effective, which could account for replicate test tubes that showed neither growth
nor decay. However, the exact nature of ibuprofen’s negative effect on duckweed remained unknown
and needs to be further explored through continued studies.
Finally, ibuprofen has been shown to cause gastritis in children (Young 1995), impairment of
color vision and visual acuity in adults (Grant 1986), and premature closure of ductus arteriosus if
taken after 34-35 weeks of pregnancy (Young 1995). Because this study indicates that ibuprofen in
drinking water has negative effects on organisms, further studies investigating its effects on humans
is necessary.
LITERATURE CITED
Grant, W.M. 1986. Toxicology of the Eye, 3rd ed. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, USA.
Groenewald, E.G. and A.J. Van Der Westhuizen. 1997. Prostaglandins and related substances in
plants. The Botanical Review 63: 199-220.
Herberer, T. 2002. Tracking persistent pharmaceutical residues from municipal sewage to drinking
water. Journal of Hydrology 266: 175-189.
Houtman, A., S. Karr, and J. Interlandi. 2013. Environmental Science. W.H. Freeman and Company,
New York, NY, USA.
Jones, O.A., J. Lester, and N. Voulvoulis. 2005. Pharmaceuticals: a threat to drinking water. Trends
in Biotechnology 23: 163-167.
Rainsford, K.D. 2013. Ibuprofen: from invention to an OTC therapeutic mainstay. International
Journal of Clinical Practice 67: 9-20.
Reece, J., L. Urry, M. Cain, S. Wasserman, P. Minorsky, and R. Jackson. 2011. Campbell Biology,
9th ed. Pearson Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA, USA.
41
Stackelberg, P., E. Furlong, M. Meyer, S. Zaugg, A. Henderson, and D. Reissman. 2004. Persistence
of pharmaceutical compounds and other organic wastewater contaminants in a conventional
drinking water treatment plant. Science of Total Environment 329: 199-113.
Vergili, I. 2013. Application of nanofiltration for the removal of carbamazepine, diclofenac, and
ibuprofen from drinking water sources. Journal of Environmental Management 127: 177-187.
Young, L.Y. and M.A. Koda-Kimble. 1995. Applied Therapeutics: the Clinical Use of Drugs, 6th ed.
Applied Therapeutics, Inc., Vancouver, WA, USA.
Zar, J.H. 1984. Biostatistical Analysis, 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA.
42
Table 1. Summary (mean + standard error; all n=16) of average plant counts per treatment. Also
provided are Mann-Whitney statistics and probability values from comparisons of the control to the
chemical treatment. Significance was determined at P<0.05.
______________________________________________________________
Treatment
Mean + standard error
U
P
______________________________________________________________
Control
3.875 + 0.256
Tetracycline
4.063 + 0.266
119
0.734
Ibuprofen
2.500 + 0.398
46
<0.002
______________________________________________________________
43
Role of Women in Service
by Neil Davis
(History 1120)
I
n the novel, Not So Quiet…Stepdaughters of War, by Helen Zenna Smith, a theme that is
introduced is that of women’s role in service. During the times leading up to the First World War,
the men of England had to leave their farms and factory jobs behind and fight. As the war
progressed, women were called into service to help out in any way that they could, mainly to take
care of the wounded men. This essay will specifically discuss and analyze the role of women before,
during, and after WWI.
Prior to the war, women’s role in society included work in the home and taking care of the
household and children. Some lower skilled women worked in the textile mills completing very
dangerous jobs for long hours. However, other women were turning to higher education to move up
the workforce ladder: “[c]ollege women were a new elite; their advent shaped roles on all frontshome, work, and ‘world’” (Woloch, 279). These women coined the term “professional women”
because they were college trained and working in professional careers. Some of the women
dominated certain careers including teachers, nurses, librarians, and social workers. Women thrive in
these fields due to their caring, nurturing mentalities. Teaching has always been a predominantly
female occupation, but during this time women with college degrees were replacing the uneducated,
younger women teachers in the schools. Several women wanted to study law but that was one of the
few careers that were male dominated: “[t]he legal profession was highly organized and the
courtroom, like the saloon, a male citadel” (Woloch, 279). For the few that wanted to enter this field,
they often had family members in the business and were able to be trained at their practices. At the
turn of the century, some women had been accepted into the field and were able to receive their legal
licenses. However, they were still unable to enter the courtroom and were given jobs performing
office work for males. The medical field was another popular profession that women were interested
in, as it was not male dominated. Women “[t]reat[ed] mainly [other] women and children, they
charged less than male competitors, and often worked out of offices in their homes” (Woloch, 280).
As the First World War began, women’s priorities and jobs severely shifted, as more opportunities
arose.
As many of the men left for service, women had to leave their own careers and help by taking
the male jobs that were left behind. At the start, they took up factory work doing jobs such as
building heavy machinery or making bullets: “[i]n England the munitionettes as they were dubbed,
numbered nearly a million” (Coffin, 765). As the war continued, women were needed on the war
front, serving under the American Expeditionary Force “as nurses, clerical workers, canteen workers
and telephone operators” (Woloch, 377). Being a nurse during this time of war was a very gruesome
and hazardous occupation. They had to be close to the front lines and enemy fire and always on alert
to help the wounded soldiers. The conditions they worked in were often unsanitary, with a very
limited amount of medical supplies, which led to many diseases and amputations. On the home
front, 12,000 women enlisted in the Navy and Marine Corps and many of them worked in army
offices or hospitals (Woloch, 377). Nellie Smith, the main character in Not So Quiet, is a 21 year old
volunteer ambulance driver. Throughout the book her troubles working as an ambulance driver as
documented to depict the horrible conditions women faced while working on the war front. One
night, Nellie draws the Number Thirteen Hospital as her station, which is the most dreaded of them
all. This is because is it “the farthest one out of camp…on top of the hill with a rough, detestable,
44
badly-winding road,” that is difficult to drive “with a load of wounded on a pitch black night in a
hurricane of wind” (Smith, 36). Also, Nellie is subject to acquiring diseases and infections from
transporting wounded soldiers and eating poorly. The food prepared for the workers is unsanitary as
one may “find hair-combings in the greasy gravy; bits of plate-leavings from the day before and an
odd hairpin” (Smith, 51). Everything about their life and jobs reeked of uncleanliness. For example,
the ambulances that the women drive had to often be cleaned out as they became so filthy from
vomit, blood and mud: “cleaning an ambulance is the foulest and most disgusting job” (Smith, 59).
The war hardened women, especially those who took care of gruesome injuries and witnessed death
on a daily basis. After the war, perceptions of women working once again shifted, this time for the
worse.
As the soldiers returned home from war, women’s roles in the factories were severely cut.
Women were no longer needed to work male jobs and the government treated them poorly. For all
the work they did throughout the war, including taking care of the men, one would think they would
be treated the opposite and praised for their hard work. Unfortunately this was not true, and women
were treated with less respect. The government and employers sent them home after the war and gave
the jobs to the returning veterans. Women were often widowed after war and had to take care of their
family and relatives. However, because women were losing their jobs it was difficult to provide for
their family as earnings were very low. Working male jobs provided women with a higher pay and
more money to spare for the household. Now they had “to return to their poorly paid traditional
sectors of employment: the textile and garment industries and domestic service” (Coffin, 766). World
War I provided women the opportunity to work in different jobs usually dominated by males, but
ultimately the war took away those same opportunities as it came to an end.
Throughout history, women in the workforce have had several ups and downs, and World
War I is a prime example of this demonstration. Before the war, women were beginning to broaden
their options as their education and experience increase, making them more qualified for different
jobs. During the war, women were called to the forefront to become nurses and ambulance drivers to
aid in treating wounded men. After the war, men returned to their former jobs, taking them away
from the hard-working women. The war solved and created problems of employment for women as
they were treated with less respect than their male counterparts. Women in the workforce deserve
more recognition for the work they completed while the men fought and should not have been
subjected to the poor treatment afterwards that they received.
Works Cited
Coffin, Judith. Western Civilizations. 17th ed. Vol. 2. New York: W. W. Norton&Company, 2011.
Print.
Smith, Helen Zenna. Not so Quiet: Stepdaughters of War. New York: Feminist at the City University
of New York, 1989. Print.
Woloch, Nancy. Women and the American Experience. 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2011. Print.
45
The Usefulness of Rubrics
by Kelly Donlan
(Education 1100)
Abstract
his paper explores five ways in which rubrics work as a positive aspect in schools. Six
different articles that report on the increased use of rubrics are used to support the claims.
These articles differ in their topics of why rubrics are beneficial, but all the articles conclude
that rubrics are a positive contribution to assessment and grading. This paper discusses how rubrics
are positive for teachers, students, and the students’ parents. Educational professors and experts, such
as Heidi Andrade, provide data and facts on how rubric use has positively affected grades and
schoolwork in America. Quotes from students are used to prove that not only teachers, but also
students appreciate the addition of rubrics for their assignments. This paper explains that rubrics are
the most efficient and fair way to grade for all teachers in every grade level. The reader will be left
with many examples on why rubrics have so many positive aspects.
T
When buying a new product, whether it is a new phone or new appliance, the buyer will most
likely have some questions about how the product works and what to do. Luckily, almost every
product comes with directions or an instructional book. These manuals are helpful because they
emphasize how the product should be used and to explain why the inventor created it in the first
place. Similarly, assignments in school are given with a guide that states the teacher’s expectations
and intentions. This guide is called a rubric. There are numerous positive aspects of giving and
receiving rubrics for assignments in school. Rubrics benefit the students by clarifying expectations,
giving the opportunity to self-assess, and the feedback helps students to improve for future
assignments. Rubrics also create a common ground for teachers and provide communication to both
students and parents.
Many people would agree that they prefer to know what is expected of them before getting
involved with something. Rubrics define every expectation that the teacher wants for the assignment.
This, in return, makes the students feel more confident and helps them start, continue, and finish their
assignment. Any confusion the student may have about the content or points of the assignment are
dismissed by the rubric. The Journal of Teaching in Social Work stated, “Rubrics communicated the
instructor’s expectations, clarified how to write course assignments, explained grad and point
deductions and, in general, made course expectations clearer” (Genzie, Khaja, Chang, Adamek, &
Johnsen, 2012, p. 421). Along with clarification, this demonstrates another expectation that rubrics
inform students of: points. A rubric will specifically say what aspects of the assignment the teacher is
looking for and how many points each section is worth. A few examples of sections that could be on
a rubric include the following: grammar, comprehension, organization, content, and creativity. With
this, students are able to determine what to include and determine what sections to focus most on
based on point value. At the University of Albany, two undergraduate students created a project to
determine student perspectives on rubrics. Their findings concluded, “Students’ comments regarding
rubric use were consistently positive. They liked the fact that rubrics let them know ‘what’s
expected; and contrasted it with the ‘guessing game’ they felt they had to play when teachers did not
provide a rubric or some sort of guidelines for an assignment” (Andrade & Du, 2005, p. 3). Rubrics
help teachers express what they are expecting the students to submit. As a result, the students are
more likely to produce better work because they knew the expectations without any guesswork from
46
the start.
Self-assessment is another positive aspect of rubrics. Self-assessment is an extremely
effective way for students to identify and correct their own errors prior to submission. Since rubrics
map out exactly how the teacher is going to grade the assignment, students can double-check their
work before turning it in for formal grading. In an article titled, “Self-Assessment”, Education
Professor Heidi Andrade explained, “During self-assessment, students reflect on the quality of their
work, judge the degree to which it reflects explicitly stated goals or criteria, and revise” (Andrade,
2008, para. 2). After finishing a project or paper, a student can read over the rubric section-by-section
to evaluate, correct, and add specifics to meet the standards that the rubric outlines. This routine
creates a long-term habit of reviewing and correcting work before submitting. Beyond that, reading
the rubrics and assessing their own work helps students to understand the task they were assigned.
This idea is explained further in an educational magazine that said, “Montgomery stated that asking
students to complete the same assessment that the teacher will use might give valuable clues to the
students’ understanding of the task and readiness for self-reflection skills” (Jackson & Larkin, 2002,
para. 2). The more a student self-assesses, the more likely it is that the student will understand the
tasks they are given. Self-assessment also gives students a chance to approximate what grade they
will receive. Being able to predict the grade the student will receive helps to eliminate the suspense
of waiting to see the actual grade. In the end, if the teacher’s final grade is different from the grade
the students predicted for themselves, this can lead to additional student-teacher discussion and
student performance improvement.
Heidi Andrade said, “If students produce it, they can assess it; and if they can assess it, they
can improve it.” One of the greatest benefits of rubrics is the opportunity to improve when the graded
assignment and rubric is handed back to students. Rubrics explain to the students how they earned a
certain grade, and this is very helpful because many students would admit that they have no idea how
they earned the grade that they did. A magazine called Teaching Exceptional Children noted, “…
Most students do not understand why they received a particular grade on an assignment. The students
may reason that their being good or bad or the teacher’s perception of them is why they were given a
particular grade” (Jackson & Larkin, 2002, para. 2). Letter grades communicate to students that they
performed well or performed below expectations; however, rubrics explain to them why they
performed well or below expectations. Reviewing the rubric makes students aware of what they need
to improve on in the current assignment or in future assignments. The undergraduates at University at
Albany also recorded one of the students who explained, “I think rubrics basically justify your grade
because even if they do have like a grade and what you did wrong, this tells you exactly what you
need or what you were lacking in” (Andrade & Du, 2005, Better, fairer grades section). Rubrics show
what criteria the student met or exceeded, and what criteria require improvement. Rubrics guide the
teacher to give clear and constructive feedback for the students. This is more effective than assigning
an A, B, C, D, or F on the assignment. If needed, the teacher can write comments on the rubric that
will emphasize the areas for improvement. An interesting thing that students can do is keeping all of
their rubrics throughout the year to compare the scores on each assignment to see how they have
improved over time. Rubric feedback will lead to an increased improvement of student performance
as time goes on.
Rubrics not only benefit students because they also provide many positive aspects for
teachers. In creating rubrics, teachers define the criteria they are looking for before assigning a
project or paper. Defining the criteria beforehand saves time for the teacher while grading and creates
consistency among teachers in grading expectations for students of similar grade and ability level. A
doctor from Minia University explained, “When a common set of performance criteria and scoring
guides are used throughout department and grade-level team, school, or district, this benefit is
extended, increasing the consistency of judgement across teachers” (Wael, 2012, p. 214). A common
ground is created among teachers with the use of a rubric. All the teachers are expecting the same
47
criteria from their students and that is what creates the consistency needed for education in general.
Rubrics help defend the teacher’s fairness in grading. Rubrics show that the grade a student is given
is based on content and proves that there was neither favor nor disfavor for an individual student.
Another positive feature for teachers is that rubrics can help them categorize student work. They can
identify the skills in which students excel and what the teacher needs to work on with the students for
further practice. Communication is key in education. Fortunately, rubrics trigger communication
between the teacher and students, parents, and among teachers. An article in Teaching Exceptional
Children informed readers, “The rubric also provides a guide for clear communication among
teachers, parents, and students as expectations for academic success are clarified and refined toward
the final product” (Jackson & Larkin, 2002, para. 5). The communication that a rubric creates is
about the teacher’s expectations and the reasoning for a certain grade after evaluation of the student’s
product. The communication through rubrics is beneficial for both ends (giver and receiver of the
rubric) to eliminate any questions and produce the best possible grade. Overall, there are many
positives of creating rubrics for teachers.
A huge influence on children’s lives and schooling are the children’s parents. Undoubtedly,
every parent wants to make sure his or her child is doing well in school and will do whatever it takes
for that success to happen. Therefore, the use of rubrics is a positive aspect for parents too. Rubrics
act as a helpful tool that parents can look off of to help their child with schoolwork at any grade
level. The article “Using Rubrics to Promote Thinking and Learning,” said, “Rubrics make sense to
people at a glance; they’re concise and digestible. For these reasons, teachers like to use them to
assess student work, parents appreciate them when helping their children with homework, and
students often request them when given a new assignment” (Andrade, 2000, p. 13). If the child is
stuck or wants his or her parents to look over an assignment, the parent can look at the rubric to get
an idea on how to help them. Parents then can assess the work according to the rubric before their
child turns in the assignment for grading. Another reason why rubrics are helpful to parents is
because they can understand and visualize exactly how their child earned a specific grade. Andrade
also provided a quote from an interviewee parent who reported this following scenario, “ ‘Look,
you’re a smart child, you’ve always done well in school. Two weeks ago I asked how you were
doing in school and you said ‘Fine, Dad.’ How can you bring home this report card?’ Sobbing, the
child told him, ‘Dad, I don’t know what the grades count on.’” (Andrade, 2000, p. 13). Using rubrics
resolve both problems in this situation. The child will know what criteria the grades are based upon
and the parents will understand the child’s grade and why they earned that grade. Rubrics will get rid
of any speculation a parent might have of the teacher grading unfairly because the grade and points
will be mapped out specifically on the rubric. Finally, after the child receives the assignment and
graded rubric, the parent can go over it with the child to clarify strengths and weaknesses. A plan to
improve any problem areas can then be determined between the parent and child with helpful teacher
feedback.
With the never-ending positive outcomes rubrics have on all people involved, it is no wonder
why rubric use in schools has increased greatly over time. Rubrics are beneficial to the teachers who
make and give them and to the students who receive them to guide their learning. Rubrics help
students by clarifying the teacher’s expectations, letting them learn and excel in self-assessment, and
helping the process of improvement over the course of time. Rubrics help teachers by making the
grading process faster and consistent. Also, it creates a common ground among teachers between and
within grade levels. Additionally, rubrics benefit parents by including them in their awareness of a
grade and to show what to work on with their child. Rubrics help the quality of assignments
tremendously and should be used worldwide in classrooms to produce the best possible student work.
48
References
Andrade, H. (2000). Using Rubrics to Promote Thinking and Learning. Educational Leadership,
57(5), 13.
Andrade, H. (2008). Self-Assessment Through Rubrics. Educational Leadership, 65(4), 60.
Andrade, H., & Du, Y. (2005). Student perspectives on rubric-referenced assessment. Practical
Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 10(3), 1-11.
Gezie, A., Khaja, K., Chang, V.N., Adamek, M.E., & Johnsen, M.S. (2012). Rubrics as a Tool for
Learning and Assessment: What Do Baccalaureate Students Think?. Journal of Teaching In
Social Work, 32(4), 421.
Jackson, C. W., & Larkin, M. J. (2002). Rubric. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(1), 40-45.
Wael Salah Mohamed Seyed, E. (2012). The Effect of Using Integrated Instruction with Evaluation
Through the Use of Performance Tasks and Rubrics on Arabic Writing Skills for Fifth-Grade
Students. International Journal of Instructional Media, 39(3), 213-224.
49
Civil Engineering: A Surprisingly Noble Career
by Randy Dziak
(English 1102)
C
ivil engineering is one of the most important professions in today’s society. Everything civil
engineers do has a direct impact on the people and environment around them. However, if a
civil engineers do not do their job properly, the impacts of their actions could be extremely
negative. According to the Minnesota Department of Transportation, “On Aug. 1, 2007, Minnesota
suffered a tragedy of historic proportions when the I-35W bridge collapsed” (Minnesota…). In this
tragic event, 13 people were killed and 145 injured. Obviously, bridges are necessary structures in
today’s society and it is up to civil engineers to design and build structures like this which function
properly and do not threaten people’s safety. Due to a grievous mistake made by Sverdrup & Parcel
and Associates, Inc. in the construction of the I-35W bridge, innocent lives were lost which shows
the importance of a civil engineer’s job. When civil engineers make mistakes, the consequences can
be catastrophic and, in the situation of the loss of a human life, irreversible. Thus engineering is a
career that does not afford mistakes.
A major concern in everything engineers do is safety. They must be certain that nothing they
build or inspect will be a danger to the people using them and must ensure that the structures must be
strong enough to endure any forces they might be subjected to such as human use and environmental
fatigue. The first fundamental rule in the NSPE’s (National Society of Professional Engineers) Code
of Ethics for Engineers is, “Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall: 1. Hold
paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public” (National Society of Professional Engineers).
Along with their concern for human safety, structural engineers must also take into account the
environmental and economic outcomes of their work. While it may not always be possible to produce
buildings with absolutely no harm on the environment, there are standards and codes that must be
satisfied when designing new structures. Although safety is the main priority for structural engineers,
they often have to be able to produce aesthetically pleasing buildings as well. Obviously structural
engineers have a lot of pressure on the quality of their work since lives depend on their expertise.
Civil engineers are some of the world’s most creative men and women who use their skills
and knowledge to improve the quality of living for all society. Not only do civil engineers fix many
problems but they also enhance the quality of living by developing more efficient, safe and
comfortable structures and systems. Due to the vast expanse of jobs civil engineers are contracted to
do, they are indispensable contributors to society. While civil engineering is not seen as a glamorous
or exciting job, much of what civil engineers do help to better society so the job is fulfilling in that
sense. In addition, if one is capable of completing the required school and training, civil engineering
is one of the most secure and rewarding jobs in today’s society.
“Civil engineering” is an extremely broad term which is inclusive of many areas of work.
Richard and Susan McDavid state in their book, Career Opportunities in: Engineering, that ‘[c]ivil
engineering is divided into several subdisciplines in which many Civil Engineers choose to
specialize” (2). These subdivisions can be roughly separated into the following groups: Structural
Engineer, Geotechnical Engineer, Construction Engineer, Water Resources Engineer, Transportation
Engineer, Traffic Engineer, Urban Planner and Environmental Engineer. Depending on which
subdivision a civil engineer specializes in, the average work day can widely vary. On the University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign’s website in the engineering information section it states, “Although
each area has its own special body of knowledge and engineering tools, they all rely on the same
50
fundamental core principles” (Programs of Study). Certain civil engineering subdivisions may
require almost all work to be done in an office while others must be done entirely in the field or even
a mixture of both. Therefore, it is important for one to know his or her work environment preferences
when choosing a field in the realm of civil engineering.
Structural engineering is perhaps one of the most widely known subdivisions of civil
engineering. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Structural engineers design and assess
major projects, such as buildings, bridges, or dams, to ensure their strength and durability” (United
States… “Civil Engineering”). Common items that structural engineers design and build include:
buildings, bridges, sports stadiums, arenas and towers. Although, oil rigs, spacecraft, satellites and
ships could be built by them as well. However, many of the previously stated items require the
expertise of many engineers of many different fields of engineering. One of the most recent feats of
structural engineering is the Burj Khalifa sky scraper which become the tallest building in the world
on January 17, by 2009 standing, “over 828 meters (2,716.5 feet) and more than 160 stories” tall
(Burj Khalifa).
Geotechnical engineers mostly work with earth materials such as soil and rock, hence the
name “geotechnical.” Geo is the Latin root for the English word “earth.” As defined by
whatisgeotech.org (a website dedicated to promoting innovation and excellence in the practice of
geotechnical engineering),
Geotechnical engineering is the science that explains mechanics of soil and rock and
its applications to the development of human kind. It includes, without being limited
to, the analysis, design and construction of foundations, slopes, retaining structures,
embankments, roadways, tunnels, levees, wharves, landfills and other systems that
are made of or are supported by soil or rock.
A geotechnical engineer’s job mostly consists of soil investigation and fault distribution. The main
purpose of these actions is to determine the subsurface conditions of a site on which something is
going to be built. Geotechnical engineers predict how stable the ground is in a certain area in order to
prevent buildings from being destroyed by earthquakes, landslides and sinkholes. Another major job
of a geotechnical engineer is ground improvement. This is a method where the permeability, stiffness
and shear strength of soil is modified in order to save costs down the road. This will keep foundations
from eroding as quickly which will prevent other complications in the building as well.
Construction engineers are very similar to structural engineers. According to Iowa State
University’s College of Engineering’s website, “Construction engineers usually focus on a certain
type of construction project” (Iowa State University College of Engineering). The website continues
on to divide construction engineering into four areas of expertise: Building, Heavy/Highway,
Mechanical and Electrical. Each of these areas specialize in different areas of construction, but the
necessary degree and education is same for all. One of the major differences between construction
engineers and structural engineers is construction engineers must complete classes concerning
construction site management. This is to help save time and money on the construction process.
Usually there is at least one structural and construction engineer working together on the same
project. Structural engineers are more focused on the designing of structures whereas construction
engineers specialize more in the area of managing and consulting.
A water resources engineer, also called a hydrologist, specializes in knowledge concerning
the movement and distribution of water. According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook,
“Hydrologists study how water moves across and through the Earth’s crust. They can use their
expertise to solve problems in the areas of water quality or availability” (United States…
“Hydrologists”). Most hydrologist positions are government jobs such as working for a city or town
regarding waste control and clean water distribution. Other jobs a hydrologist might do may be
51
environmentally related such as flood and landslide risk and warning. Often times, hydrologist will
work with structural engineers during the construction of bridges by calculation the force exerted on
the bridge by the moving water. It is very rare that hydrologist ever work on a project alone, usually
their work is done to provide information for the construction of a new building or the safety of an
existing structure such as a bridge or canal.
Transportation engineering is exactly what it sounds like. It is the engineering of
transportation systems and facilities to produce maximum cost effectiveness, efficiency, safety and
comfort for the people using the systems. According to CNN, a transportation Engineer, “[A]nalyzes,
plans, designs, draws, checks calculations and oversees highway, rail and related transportation civil
construction projects” (CNN Money). Most of a transportation engineer’s job consists of predictions
and planning. They must be able to estimate how many trips will be made to specific areas in order to
provide adequate transportation systems to and from each area. Efficiency is a major concern in a
transportation engineer’s job. They must be able to determine the fastest way to transport passengers
and goods from one place to another by more than one method. Also they must design facilities such
as airports and train stations which can efficiently, effectively and safely get passengers to their
destination. Another critical part of transportation engineering involves the development and
implementation of systems to ensure smooth travel such as road signs and light signals.
Transportation engineers are extremely important in today’s society since without them our
transportation systems would be chaotic and uncontrolled. Also as the population grows there will be
a greater need for transportation of food and goods so transportation engineers will always be
needed.
Traffic Engineering is very similar to both urban planning and transportation engineering.
However, traffic engineers have a more specific focus than urban planners or transportation
engineers. According to the Institute of Transportation Engineers, traffic engineers “facilitate the
application of technology and scientific principles to research, planning, functional design,
implementation, operation, policy development and management for any mode of ground
transportation” (Institute of Transportation Engineering). Traffic engineers mainly specialize in the
area of traffic flow, traffic signs, road markings and traffic lights. Unlike transportation engineers,
traffic engineers are not involved in the building or design of any transportation related structures.
They are concerned principally with the flow of traffic on existing roadways or designing systems for
new roadways. Traffic engineers will also look at areas of high crash rates and develop explanations
and solutions for the problems causing the crashes.
The job of an urban planner, also known as a city planner, is to optimize the use,
effectiveness and functionality of cities, towns and villages. According to the Bureau of Labor
Statistics’ Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Urban and regional planners develop plans and
programs for the use of land. Their plans help create communities, accommodate population growth,
and revitalize physical facilities in towns, cities, counties, and metropolitan areas” (United States…
“Urban and Regional Planners”). Things that an urban planner must take into consideration when
planning an area are things such as fire and police stations, hospitals and schools. For example, it
would be more effective to have a fire station in the middle of a village rather than on the outskirts in
order to minimize distance from the station to any point in the village. Other issues such as crime,
land value, air pollution and traffic congestion must also be taken into account when designing and
planning an urban area. For instance, if one area of a town has a higher crime rate than any other
area, it might be most practical to put the police station near that area.
Environmental engineering is one of the broadest subdivisions in civil engineering and is a
combination of science, engineering principles. The Bureau of Labor Statistics states,
“Environmental engineers use the principles of engineering, soil science, biology, and chemistry to
develop solutions to environmental problems. They are involved in efforts to improve recycling,
waste disposal, public health, and water and air pollution control” (United States… “Environmental
52
Engineers”). In order to enhance the quality of human life, environmental engineers pursue to
provide society with a healthy environment to live in. They do this by providing healthy water and
air for human use to the best of their ability. Environmental engineers are concerned with how
technological advances are effecting the environment and if the effects are harmful they attempt to
provide a solution. They also strive to provide optimum sanitation to urban environments. Along
with these tasks, environmental engineers regulate industrial hygiene, environmental sustainability
and public health issues. Environmental engineering is perhaps one of the most important careers
concerning society’s health and well-being.
Since there are numerous jobs a civil engineer could do due to the many subdivisions, the
salary of civil engineers varies greatly. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, “The median
annual wage for civil engineers was $79,340 in May 2012” (“Occupational…”). However in a
personal interview, Professor Scott Banjavic, an engineering professor at The College of DuPage,
stated that the starting salary for a civil engineer is “anywhere between $45,000 and $65,000.” The
Bureau of Labor Statistics also states that the top paid ten percent of civil engineers earned an
average annual wage of $126,190. This is because the salary of civil engineers tend to increase with
their years of experience. The area in which a civil engineer works has a major influence on their
salary depending on the cost of living, taxes and many other factors. Banjavic confirms this by
saying that although the average starting salary for civil engineers is around $45,000 to $65,000, for
civil engineers, “in Chicago it’s closer to $60,000.” Obviously, this is on the higher end of the
starting average starting salary scale. As job experience increases over one’s years of work, his or her
pay tends to increase as well. The same trend can be seen as education increases. In the Field of
engineering, “if you have your master’s degree you tend to earn about $10,000 more” than the
average starting salary (Banjavic).
In order to become a civil engineer there are specific training and educational requirements
that are usually expected to be met and “at the very least you have to have a bachelor’s degree”
(Banjavic). Banjavic stated that 4 years of schooling is the usual amount of time it takes to obtain a
bachelor’s degree in civil engineering. This degree must be obtained from an ABET (Accreditation
Board for Engineering and Technology) accredited institution. Although one can obtain their civil
engineering degree from any ABET accredited institution, some schools are superior and expedite
the job search. Currently, the civil engineering program at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign is rated the best civil engineering program in the nation. This is due to their ability to
give students the most and up-to-date education regarding civil engineering. Their curriculum is
constantly changing in order to stay current and fit the civil engineering needs of society.
Along with their Bachelor’s degree, “Most civil engineers go on to study and qualify for a
professional engineering (PE) license. It is required before one can work on projects affecting
property, health, or life” (“Civil Engineers” 38). Since “most companies will want you to become a
professional engineer,” right out of school a test must be taken called the fundamentals of
engineering exam (Banjavic). Once this test has been taken, four years of field work is required
before one can take the final exam called The Professional Engineering exam. However, if one
obtains their Master’s degree that can count for one of the four required years. There are five
different civil engineering PE exams. Each exam focuses on a different area of civil engineering due
to the many subdivisions. Engineers usually start studying for this test at the beginning of their junior
year due to the extreme difficulty of the test. According to NCEES (National Council of Examiners
for Engineering) over 29% of test takers need to take the test twice in order to pass.
Along with the education requirements of civil engineering, most companies expect potential
employees to have obtained certain on-the-job training and experience. The most common way for
one to acquire this training and experience is through internships. Without internships it is very hard
to procure a satisfactory position in the field of engineering. Therefore, it is extremely beneficial to
complete at least one internship between ones freshmen and senior year of undergraduate studies. In
53
a personal interview, Professor Banjavic stated that “because of my internships I not only got
valuable training and experience, but I also figured out what I didn’t want to do in engineering.” It
is common for civil engineering interns to be a junior engineer at an engineering firm. As described
by Chevron, one of the most prominent energy corporations, engineering internships, “Develop
your skills under the supervision and guidance of experienced professionals” (Chevron). Junior
engineers will usually follow around an experienced engineer and run errands and file paperwork
for them while at the same time getting hands-on training. Therefore, it is not only beneficial for
one studying civil engineering to complete internships for the sake of the job outlook but also for
the sake of one’s personal interests.
While there are many associations for the numerous subdivisions of civil engineering, there is
one widely recognized association which is inclusive of all civil engineering subdivisions. This
association is the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) with over 145,156 members is the
largest and most respected society regarding civil engineering. With multiple conferences held each
month around the nation and some even around the world, it is not hard to find a conference that fits
one’s schedule. Along with conferences, the ASCE puts out a magazine called Civil Engineering
which is digitally published monthly. Membership to the ASCE is free for students and they offer
many benefits for their young members along with information about student organizations in one’s
area. However, if one is not a student, there are membership dues. The cost of membership ranges
from $33 to $260 depending on the number of years after one has earned their baccalaureate degree.
Even though it may seem a bit expensive, the benefits one receives from being a member of the
ASCE are worth much more than the dues required.
The ASCE’s website offers its members tools which help in the understanding of the
education requirements in the field of civil engineering. It provides information on the codes and
standards used in the field and can connect the reader to helpful books and journals. Another aspect
of the ASCE is it offers information and advice on getting certified and also continuing education.
ASCE also provides information on leadership and management. This area of information concerns
awards in many different aspects of the field given to civil engineers who demonstrate an impressive
level of skill, leadership and many more valuable traits.
It is also very important to stay well-informed on the issues of one’s field. Aware of this, the
ASCE provides information about pertinent and current issues in the field of civil engineering. Also
since new technologies and methods are evolving at such a fast rate, it is necessary to stay informed
as to not waste time and money using outdated tools and techniques. If there is a controversy or
major issue in the civil engineering profession ASCE’s gives essential information and details
concerning the problem. Sustainability is currently a main interest in engineering. ASCE’s website
”offers a host of resources to help civil engineers plan and execute with sustainability in mind, and
supports other professional groups pursuing the same objectives” (ASCE). The website also offers a
journal in which many intelligent and experienced engineers share ideas and methods for more
efficient methods and safer materials.
In the field of civil engineering, environmental sustainability is a major controversy. With the
population of earth growing at an increasingly fast pace, it is important to recognize that our
resources are limited and valuable. On their website, ASCE defines sustainability as “[a] set of
environmental, economic and social conditions in which all of society has the capacity and
opportunity to maintain and improve its quality of life indefinitely without degrading the quantity,
quality or availability of natural, economic and social resources” (American Society of Civil
Engineers). In order to prolong the health and existence of our population, there are certain
requirements that must be met by civil engineers when building new structures or inspecting old
ones. One major advancement being made in the field of structural engineering pertains to lighting.
Jeff Siegel states in his book, Investing in Renewable Energy, “Commercial and residential buildings
in the United States used 40 quadrillion Btus (quads) of energy in 2005, at a cost of $300 Billion”
54
(Siegel 121). However Siegel also states, “196 LEDs draw only W, compared to the 150 W that an
incandescent light draws” (124). Therefore, with the implementation of LED requirements in new
structures, millions of dollars will be saved in energy each year. Along with conserving energy, civil
engineers must also be aware of the environment and the effects their job has on it. With the building
of new structures, often times the construction will destroy plants and push out wildlife. Therefore,
civil engineers have to meet certain standards when designing and building structures. According to
ASCE, these “[s]tandards provide technical guidelines for promoting safety, reliability, productivity
and efficiency across all areas of civil engineering. These voluntary standards are written by experts
with knowledge and expertise in a particular field” (ASCE). A relatively new concept is the idea of
green roofs. Not only do green roofs benefit the environment around them but they also allow for
wildlife such as birds and insects to build homes in an otherwise inhabitable environment.
As long as humans have existed there has always been a demand for shelter and safety. When
civilizations arose, shelters were not the only structures needed. As stated in Ancient Technology:
Ancient Construction, “In addition to homes, ancient people built monuments, palaces, roads, dams,
bridges, canals, tunnels, harbors, light houses, sewage systems, and many other structures” (Woods
7). Therefore, civil engineers were needed to design and build these buildings, aqueducts and other
systems. Ancient Rome is renowned for their complex and efficient aqueducts. Some were over 60
miles in length and retained a steady downward sloping grade to carry water from mountain springs
to the city center (Aicher). Even today, the Roman aqueduct system is regarded as one of the most
incredible feats of civil engineering. The term “civil engineering” was coined in the 18th century to
distinguish between civil and military engineering. In the ancient times, civil engineers were not only
seen as builders and designers but also as inventors. Although civil engineers still invent new
buildings and methods to this day, nowadays civil engineers mainly attempt to perfect or enhance
existing ideas.
Benjamin Wright is one of the most important civil engineers in America’s history of civil
engineering. According to the National Park Service, Wright was the chief engineer on the Erie
Canal project in 1817 and led numerous other projects as well (Engineer Benjamin Wright).The Erie
Canal project entailed leading and guiding thousands of unskilled workers who built the canal with
wheelbarrows, shovels, horses and mules. After completing the Erie Canal, Wright was appointed
chief engineer for the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal due to his unprecedented reputation. Along with
Wright’s engineering work, he was also appointed a New York county judge in 1794. According to
Connecticut History.org, “in 1969 the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) declared him
“’the Father of American Civil Engineering’” (Connecticut History.org).
Civil engineers will always be needed. As society grows, the demand for structures will grow
as well. Along with the building of new structures, the inspection of existing structures will always
be needed. In his article “Mega-Engineering” in Popular Mechanics, Davin Coburn states, “The
economy may be struggling, but there is still plenty of work to be done in America. Aging Bridges
need to be replaced, ships need building, energy needs to be produced” (61). Also, in the past fifty
years the world has seen incredible advances in the area of science and technology. With these
progressions, new systems and structures are needed to be designed and built. An article published by
Tech News Daily, a poplar and respected online scientific news source, states, “Thanks to new
technologies and new testing methods, some of today's largest buildings can stay safe in a quake
without compromising their size or aesthetic design. In fact, to attain their great height, many of the
world's largest buildings utilize architectural elements that also protect them in case of disaster”
(“The World’s 7…”). These earthquake resistant buildings could save thousands of lives, which
shows the value and usefulness of civil engineering.
While civil engineering may not be a career that one dreams of entering as a child, it truly is a
noble career. Thousands of people’s lives depend on civil engineers doing their job properly. As seen
in the example of the bridge collapsing in Minnesota, the consequences of even the smallest mistake
55
in this career can be devastating. Civil engineers work each and every day to enhance the quality of
life for society and ensure their safety. Therefore, it is clear that civil engineering is one of the most
important careers existing today.
Works Cited
Aicher, Peter. “Watering Ancient Rome.” PBS.org. WGBH, 2014. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
American Society of Civil Engineers. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2014. Web. 10 Mar. 2014.
Banjavic, Scott. Personal interview. 26 Apr. 2014.
Burj Khalifa. EMAAR Properties, 2013. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Chevron. Chevron Corporation, 2014. Web. 23 Apr. 2014.
“Civil Engineers,” Careers in Focus: Engineering 3rd ed. New York: Ferguson, 2007. 35-43.Print.
CNN Money. Cable News Network, 2014. Web. 9 May 2014.
Coburn, Davin. “Mega Engineering.” Popular Mechanics Sept 2012: 61-67. Print.
Connecticut History.org. Connecticut Humanities, 2014. Web. 9 May 2014.
Engineer Benjamin Wright. National Park Service, 22 Apr. 2014. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Iowa State University College of Engineering. Iowa State University of Science and Technology,
2014. Web. 23 Apr. 2014.
Institute of Transportation Engineers. Institute of Transportation Engineers, 2014. Web. 9 May 2014.
McDavid, Richard, and Susan Echaore-McDavid. “Civil Engineering.” Career Opportunities in:
Civil Engineering. New York: Checkmark Books, 2007. 2-26. Print.
Minnesota Department of Transportation. Minnesota Department of Transportation, 2012. Web. 22
Apr. 2014.
NCEES. National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying, 2014. Web. 22 Apr.2014.
National Society of Professional Engineers. National Society of Professional Engineers, 2014. Web.
9 May 2014.
“Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2012 17-2051 Civil Engineers.” Bureau of Labor
Statistics. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 29 March 2013. Web. 12 March 2014.
Programs of Study: University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign. University of Illinois at Urbana
Champaign, 2010. Web. 2 Apr. 2014.
“The World’s 7 Biggest Earthquake-Proof Buildings.” Tech News Daily. Tech Media Network, 2012.
Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Civil Engineers.” Occupational Outlook Handbook, 201213 ed. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 8 Jan. 2014. Web. 9 May 2014.
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Environmental Engineers.” Occupational Outlook
Handbook, 2012-13 ed. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 8 Jan. 2014. Web. 9 May 2014.
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Hydrologists.” Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2012-13
ed. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 8 Jan. 2014. Web. 9 May 2014.
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Urban and Regional Planners.” Occupational Outlook
Handbook, 2012-13 ed. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 8 Jan. 2014. Web. 9 May 2014.
What is Geotechnical Engineering. International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, 2014. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Woods, Michael and Mary B. Woods. Ancient Technology: Ancient Construction. Minneapolis:
Runestone Press, 2000. Print.
56
The Legend of Starved Rock
by Katrina Favis
(English 1102)
I
magine one is standing on a cliff 250 feet above the Illinois River, overlooking the breathtaking
scene of woodland, waterfalls, and canyons that nature gave rise to. The colorful trees sway to
the beat of the wind and the birds are chirping as the scenario feels that it could be a part of a
movie. This famous cliff, known as Starved Rock, is one of Illinois’ most prominent, historical, and
scenic landmarks. What many people standing upon this rock do not know though, is the origin of the
name. Legend says that the name became “Starved Rock” from a war between two Native American
tribes, the Ottawa and the Illini. The Starved Rock legend provides a symbol of the past by adding
lore to the well-known area and by giving respect to the once known Native American tribe, the
Illinois.
The Formation of Starved Rock is one of life’s natural wonders. According to geologists, the
creation of Starved Rock started between 15,000 and 17,000 years ago (Finney 240). Geologists
claim that the melt waters from the Wisconsonian glaciations became too great to be restrained by
the moraines to the north and east. The water broke through and flowed to the headquarters of the
Vermillion River, a tributary of the Illinois Valley, and concentrated in the Illinois Valley. This flood
is what geologists refer to as the “Kankakee Torrent” (Finney 241). It is believed that the flood
created the historic features and the prominent summit of Starved Rock. Starved Rock is located in
the northern part of Illinois along the Illinois River, right next to the city of Ottawa. Specifically,
Starved Rock is an elevated cliff on the left bank of the Illinois River that consists of parallel layers
of white sandstone. The summit is not less than 250 feet high and there are three perpendicular sides
as it is washed at its base by the river (Finney 242). This famous cliff is covered with a soil of
several feet in depth, bearing a growth of young trees. To this day, Starved Rock is now a historic
state park. "It's a beautiful park, Illinois is filled with prairie and farms and all of a sudden right here,
you have Starved Rock," Pam Grivetti, president of the Starved Rock Foundation, said about the
prominent landmark (Walcyznski 216). Starved Rock is a natural and historic place that Illinois is so
proud to have. It is recognized as a unique archeological site because of its focal point in Illinois and
in human history of the Illinois Valley.
Furthermore, archeologists suggest that human habitation around Starved Rock dates as far
back as 8000 B.C. More recently, the earliest group of inhabitants recorded at the region was the
historical Kaskaskia, whose large settlement on the north side of the Illinois River was known as the
‘Grand Village of the Illinois’ (Janvien 84). The Kaskaskia were members of the Illinois
Confederation, or the Illini, who inhabited the region in the 16th through the 18th centuries. Then, in
1673, Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette were the first Europeans to mention Starved Rock,
or as they called it “Le Rocher” meaning “The Rock” in French (Finney 246). They founded the
place to build an area for trade and shelter. Soon after, other Frenchman in pursuit of souls and furs
soon followed Jolliet and Marquette’s lead. Chief among these were Sieur de La Salle and his
lieutenant, Henri de Tonti. In 1862, the two constructed Fort St. Louis atop Le Rocher or what is
known today as Starved Rock. Fort St. Louis was a part of the chain of western forts to prevent the
westward expansion of the British (Finney 246). Eight years later, Fort St. Louis was abandoned at
Le Rocher as the Frenchmen relocated to a more convenient location. The relocating of the
Frenchmen led Native American tribes, like the Illini, to seek refuge atop of the rock during one of
their most treacherous battles.
57
While Starved Rock is clearly of historical importance from both a Native and Western
perspective, it is best known because of a legend from which it derives its name. On April 20, 1769,
Pontiac, chief of the Ottawa, was brutally murdered by an Illinois Confederation Warrior due to a
disagreement about land (Osmun). The alleged murder caused uproar with the Ottawa and their
allies, the Pottawatomie. Pontiac was very respected by his fellow tribes, so once the news came out
about his death, vengeance on the tribe that murdered their beloved master was beginning to rise.
This was the beginning of the almost extermination of the Illinois tribe. According to legend, the
Ottawa and Pottawatomie then attacked the Illini along the Illinois River. They terribly did revenge
themselves upon their enemies because the Pottawatomies and Ottawas deemed it as a duty and glory
to slaughter not only the strong Illini men, but also the women and helpless children of the Illinois
tribe.
About 2,000 escaping Illini climbed the top of Le Rocher as a place of refuge (Osmun). They
thought that it was a safe shelter from all the chaos happening around them. What they did not realize
though, is that the Pottawatomies and Ottawas then sieged each side of the rock so no one could
escape. As one can tell what happens next, most of the Illini died of starvation, thus having the
prominent feature be named “Starved Rock”. Of course, there is a heroic twist to the legend. On a
dark and stormy night, it is believed that eleven of the most athletic warriors broke through the
besieging lines (Osmun). They had marked from below the isolated rock a nook where their enemies
kept their canoes. Afterwards, the eleven warriors rushed with headlong speed, unnoticed by their
foes, and hurried down the rapids of the Illinois River. Legend says that those escaping Native
Americans knew well of every channel of the river so they were able to navigate throughout the
darkness to seek safety at Fort St. Louis, a nearby French fortress. When the Illini reached St. Louis,
they told their tale and received protection from the commanders. After escaping one of the most
treacherous battles, the Illinois never claimed that name again. They ended up seeking new friends of
a different tribe in the southern part of the state and that is the last of what people know of the Illinois
Tribe (Osmun). The Pottawatomies and Ottawas were bent upon the utter extermination of their
hated enemies and according to legend; they received what they wished for.
This horrible tale of the extermination of the Illinois due to starvation is a legend that may or
may not be true. The legend comes from things that are said to have happened. None are supported
by evidence other than frequent retelling. One can only wonder though, that perhaps this tale was
based on something that did happen somewhere at some time. What is most important about the
Starved Rock tale is whether a person is willing to believe that the incident actually occurred.
It is true that there are not many hard records of the total extermination of the Illinois, but
there are a few accounts with chiefs that told their take on the alleged battle. One of the most
authentic accounts of the great tragedy is obtainable from Meachelle, an old Pottawatomie chief. He
told his side of the story to Judge J.D. Caton in 1833 (Walcynski 217). According to Caton,
“Meachelle was present at the siege and the final catastrophe, and although a boy at the time, the
terrible event made such an impression on his young mind that it ever remained fresh and vivid”
(Walcynski 217). Ultimately, Meachelle claimed that the Illinois Indians ceased to exist. This is
intriguing to read about and can be reliable if one believes in the treacherous tale of the Illini. Judge
J.D. Caton believed that the legend was true also. Other accounts that support the truth of the legend
include Henry Schoolcraft, who explored the area near Starved Rock in 1821. He was said to believe
the legend and found fragments of antique pottery and stones that must have belonged to the Illini
(Schoolcraft). There are also other secondary sources that reveal the proof of the massacre. These
include fur traders, settlers, and visitors of the rock (Walcynski 219). Most of them claimed to have
seen bones of the defeated Illinois. Dr. J.H Goodell states in his article that an early settler, Simon
Crosiar, told him that the ground of Starved Rock was literally covered with human bones
(Walcynski 220). These accounts help indicate proof of the Battle of Starved Rock to those that wish
to believe.
58
The myth itself gives respect to the Illini. Edgar Lee Masters, a famous poet, wrote a book
named after the alleged remnant of the battle between the Ottawas and the Illini. A line from his
poem “Starved Rock” reads: “We are the children and the epigone of the Illini, the vanished nation.
And this Starved scarp of stone is now the emblem of our tribulation” (Masters 3). This line
specifically refers to the suffering that the Illini tribe had undergone. Masters poem has a way of
providing empathy to anyone that reads about the challenges that the Illini faced. It provides insight
of a mythical and historic tale. His poem also gives respect to the Illinois tribe because he writes
about how the rock is theirs, the place where the last of the Illini had died. The legend gives value to
the rock where the Battle of Starved Rock occurred.
Places like Starved Rock play important roles in the formation of regional identities and
cultures with its legend. It is important for people to learn about the history of the famous Starved
Rock because residents and newcomers alike can tie themselves deeply to a land far richer and more
ancient than themselves. The Starved Rock legend has a very special place in Illinois and it gives
respect to the Native Americans whose ancestors supposedly underwent the treacherous war. The
legend is a teaching of the past so people could learn and even put themselves into what the Illinois
Native Americans experienced. Their name is perpetrated in the great state of Illinois as the legend is
apart of their history. Also, whether legends are true or not, they do play important roles in providing
intriguing tales of the past that people of the future can reflect on. The legend of Starved Rock adds
excitement to a seemingly beautiful landscape. This is the gift legends have for people; they keep
people interested in the events of the past and help explain the present. They provide intrigue and
stimulate one’s curiosity to discover history.
Because of these historical roots, the Starved Rock myth is a tradition passed down from
generation that gives respect to the Illinois Native Americans and provides an intriguing look of the
past with its mysterious story. Sometimes heroic tales lead people to believe history as entertaining
and even beautiful. The legend itself is a time machine to the past that people can keep hold of once
they climb the rock, look over the vast Illinois River, and envision that they stood on the very spot
where the last of the Illinois may have perished.
Works Cited
Finney, Fred A. “The Starved Rock Fort.” Illinois Archaeology: Journal of the Illinois Archaeology
Survey 22.1 (2010): 240-255. Academic Search Complete. Web. 21 Apr. 2014.
Janvein, Mary W. “The Legend of Starved Rock.” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 2.4
(1910): 82-87. Print.
Masters, Edgar Lee. Starved Rock. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1919. Print.
Osmun, Eaton G. Starved Rock: A Historical Sketch. Chicago: The Free Trader Printing House.
1895. Print.
Schoolcraft, Henry R. “Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley.” Journal of the
Illinois State Historical Society (1825): 310-319. Print.
Walcyznski, Mark. “The Starved Rock Massacre of 1769: Fact or Fiction.” Journal of the Illinois
State Historical Society 100.3 (2007): 215-236. Print.
59
Miasmatic Theory
by Emily Garvanovic
(Chemistry 1152)
D
ating as far back as ancient Greece and surviving well into the late nineteenth-century, many
people believed in the idea that bad or corrupt air was the causation of illness and disease.
Such an idea was called the miasmatic theory. Those who regarded the miasmatic theory to
be true believed that typhoid, cholera, malaria, the bubonic plague and other various diseases were
not transmitted from person to person, but rather were caused by foul odors from decomposing
matter, such as sewage, rotting vegetation, and decaying corpses, and were transmitted by air
(Halliday 1469 and Moffett 540). Even though the belief that the causation of diseases through
miasma dates back to ancient Greece, the Oxford English Dictionary shows that the word “miasma”
was first used in 1665. Throughout history, there have been many influential supporters of the
miasmatic theory: Hippocrates (an ancient Greek physician and the father of medicine), David
Barnes (a scientific historian and author of The Great Stink of Paris and the Nineteenth-Century
Struggle Against Filth and Germs), and even one of the world’s most famous nurses, Florence
Nightingale (Hueppe 384 and Pennington 1740), just to name a few. In Notes on Nursing: What It
Is, and What It Is Not, Nightingale wrote that “the very first canon of nursing...the first essential to
the patient, without which all the rest you can do for him is as nothing...is this: to keep the air he
breathes as pure as the external air” (Scovil 355). Nightingale was a firm believer that foul air was
the most important and prominent cause of infection. She also attributed smallpox, measles, and
scarlet fever to “the practice of building houses with drains beneath them from which odors could
escape and infect the inhabitants” (Halliday 1469). Not only did the theory have the backing of
many famous individuals within the scientific community but more importantly, most, if not all,
civilians believed this theory to be true. Today, however, we know the miasmatic theory to be
untrue, due to the advances made in biology and medicine through John Snow, Louis Pasteur, and
Robert Koch with the discoveries of germs and germ theory.
I think it is safe to say that one of the most terrifying periods of history was, no doubt, when
the bubonic plague ravaged the human population; Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Africa were
all devastated by the so-called Black Death. Through years of influence under the miasmatic theory,
many civilians and those within the scientific community believed that foul air and rats were not only
causing the disease, but that they were also spreading it. Now, how would rats play any sort of role
in the causation and spreading of disease if, during this historical period the miasmatic theory
explained the causation of diseases? Well, for a long time there had existed scientific belief “that
rats – as well as snakes and similarly loathsome vermin – were born of the miasmas produced by
putrefying refuse, stagnant water, or swampy earth, all considered local causes of pestilence” (Barker
664). If bad air was the cause of this horrifying disease, then what did doctors and physicians
recommend the people of this time to do? During some of the major waves of the plague, Italian
physician Marcantonio Ciappi, in his 1630 disquisition of the disease, urged and recommended that
people combat the miasma with floral perfumes by filling their homes with heaps of roses, violets,
and myrtle (Barker 674). An example of an early theory on the etiology or cause of the disease was
brought by Wu Xuanchon, a Chinese physician from Wuchan. Wu believed that the Black Death
was caused by qi, foul air vapors that rose up from the ground. He believed that the miasma could
become trapped inside poorly ventilated buildings; therefore, dark and sunless houses, like those in
cities, were more likely to be infected than were the houses in the open spaces of the country side.
60
According to Wu, rural areas were more immune than the cities because they had more fresh air. He
also concluded that because the poisonous air had to pass through the rats’ burrows on its way to the
surface, that is why the rats were affected first and for the same reason, the ground floors of buildings
were more dangerous than the upper stories. Wu believed in preventative measures and therefore
warned people to be on guard for the rats that were believed to help cause the disease and even urged
civilians to go and bury any dead rats they saw, but only after plugging their nostrils and keeping
their faces turned away from the rats to avoid breathing in the miasma (Benedict 137, 138).
One of the earliest contributions to the idea that something other than foul air as the causation
of diseases is attributed to John Snow. Snow was unconvinced that miasma was the cause of the
1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak in London, England. As the General Board of Health favored the
miasmatic idea of disease transmission, they tested the air in the district to see if they could filter
anything that could be associated with cholera. All that was found was fungus, dust, and mold
spores, yet nothing that could be associated with cholera. Unconvinced by this miasmatic theory,
Snow believed that the fecal matter of those infected with the disease had somehow contaminated the
water systems and had infected the drinking water. Snow used statistics to show that the outbreak
correlated with a particular water pump on Broad Street, which was located at the center of the
neighborhood where the outbreak originated, and after even more investigation, it was revealed that
there was broken lining and the Broad Street pump had, in fact, been dispensing “sewage-tainted”
water that had caused the outbreak (Moffett 540, 541). Though Snow’s efforts and data had some
imperfections, he can still be attributed with some of the earliest work of developing the germ theory
and improved hospital and public sanitation.
Professor H. Booth once wrote that “from inhaling the odor of beef the butcher’s wife obtains
her obesity” (Halliday 1469). Today we would think that statement made by Booth to be totally
absurd and completely ridiculous, but during the time when miasmatic theory was dominant, it would
have been a normal thought for you to become obese from to the smell of meat in the air. Thanks to
the hard work of many individuals throughout the nineteenth century, we now have the germ theory.
It was through this theory that the miasmatic theory was ultimately thrown to the wayside by the
scientific community. The development of this theory was a crucial moment in the advancement of
biology and medicine. As Paul E. M. Fine wrote, the germ theory’s “impact was enormous, leading
all of the biomedical sciences away from previously held notions of miasmas and humours, towards
more rigorous concepts of specific aetiologies and appropriate preventive and therapeutic measures”
(347). The germ theory proved that it was not through foul smelling air that diseases came about, but
through understanding of “human-microorganism discovery that transmissible agents are responsible
for diseases that were never suspected of being infectious in origin” (Gibbons 627). Because of the
germ theory, we have come to know that the bubonic plague was not caused or created by foul air,
but by Yersinia pestis, a type of bacterium that is transmitted by fleas that were dwelling on the rats
(Sebbane et al. 5526). Even though the Chinese physician Wu gave great advice to be wary and on
guard for rats, he basically signed the death certificates of those who listened to him and made an
attempt to go and bury any dead rats they saw. The fleas that carried Yersinia pestis actually lived on
rats and by trying to bury them individual put themselves at risk of being bitten by the fleas on the
rats and then contracting the plague. Cities were uprooted by the plague, not because they had less
fresh air, but because of the high populations of humans and rats and the unbelievably low (basically
nonexistent) standards of public sanitation and personal hygiene. It was through the work of very
dedicated and hard working individuals that medicine and science took a giant leap from the
primitive thought of contracting disease by inhaling foul smelling air, to a more modern medicine
and the causation of illness from microbes, germs, and viruses through the germ theory.
61
Works Cited
Barker, Sheila. “Poussin, Plague, and Early Modern Medicine.” The Art Bulletin 86.4 (2004): 659689
Benedict, Carol. “Bubonic Plague in Nineteenth-Century China.” Modern China 14.2 (1988): 107155
Fine, Paul E. M. “John Brownlee and the Measurement of Infectiousness: An Historical Study in
Epidemic Theory.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (General) 142.3 (1979):
347-362
Gibbons, Robert V. “Germs, Dr. Billings, and the Theory of Focal Infection.” Clinical Infectious
Diseases 27.3 (1998): 627–633
Halliday, Stephen. “Death And Miasma In Victorian London: An Obstinate Belief.” BMJ: British
Medical Journal 323.7327: (2001), 1469-1471
Hueppe, Ferdinand. “The Causes of Infectious Disease.” The Monist 8.3 (1898): 384-414
"miasma, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. 4 November 2013 <http://0www.oed.com.lrc.cod.edu/view/Entry/117825>.
Moffett, John R. "Miasmas, Germs, Homeopathy And Hormesis: Commentary On The Relationship
Between Homeopathy And Hormesis." Human & Experimental Toxicology 29.7 (2010):
539-543
Pennington, Hugh. “From Miasmas to Microbes.” Science 313 (2006): 1740–1741
Scovil, Elisabeth Robinson. “Florence Nightingale's Notes on Nursing.” The American Journal of
Nursing 27.5 (1927): 355–357
Sebbane, Florent, C. O. Jarrett, D. Gardner, D. Long and B. J. Hinnebusch. “Role of the Yersinia
pestis Plasminogen Activator in the Incidence of Distinct Septicemic and Bubonic Forms of
Flea-Borne Plague.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States
of America 103.14 (2006): 5526-5530
62
The Composition, Structure, Sources, and Applications of Eugenol
by Frank R. Giuliani
(Honors Chemistry 1552)
W
hat do cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg,
and basil have in common? Maybe
you recognize each of them as
common culinary herbs, which they are, but
there is actually a characteristic molecule that
is found to some extent in each, referred to as
eugenol. Eugenol is an organic molecule
consisting of a six carbon ring of alternating
double-bonds; two oxygen atoms are singlybonded to carbons in the ring, one of the
oxygen atoms is single-bonded to another
carbon with three hydrogen atoms and the
other is bonded only to hydrogen; another
carbon atom is singly-bonded to a remaining
carbon in the ring, which is bonded to two
other carbons each of which are also bonded
to hydrogen atoms. Whew, that was a lot of
words. The best way to understand how the
atoms fit together is to see its skeletal formula
and a ball and stick model, each of which are
in the public domain and can be found on
Wikipedia [1], but are shown in the margin for
convenience. It is considered a phenylpropene
molecule [1], the “phenyl” part of the word
meaning that it contains a modified benzene
ring (6 carbon atoms with hydrogen normally
attached to each) with an allyl group attached
(a side group H2C=CH-CH2R, where R is the
rest of the molecule [2]). The terminology
given and how all this fits together will be
interesting to learn about in organic chemistry.
Its molecular formula is C10H12O2.
essential oil, which is said to have the
“essence” of the plant that gives it its taste and
smell. For instance, the essence of cloves can
be generally extracted using an organic
solvent such as olive oil which will dissolve
some of the eugenol in the plant matter [3].
This would work given the principle of like
molecules dissolving like molecules. The
smaller the plant can be broken up the better,
which increases the surface area of the
particles being dissolved. The olive oil will
have the essence of cloves, but this is not pure
eugenol.
Cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, and basil are some
of the well known natural (plant) sources of
eugenol. It varies in concentration in each type
of plant from which it can be extracted as an
Fig. 1 Pictured are the spices cloves, cinnamon, and
nutmeg with a basil plant.
63
The distinctive and familiar flavor of
cinnamon is not due to eugenol, which has a
very different taste than cloves. This may be
due to the part of the plant we eat, which is
from the inner bark of a tree (see figure 6), as
eugenol is said to be found primarily in the
leaves of a cinnamon tree [9]. There is also a
lot of variation in the genus Cinnamomum that
seems to have a large affect on the
concentration of eugenol found in its leaves,
from trace levels to about 80% in its essential
oil [10]. Given the general association that
eugenol tastes like cloves, when compared to
cinnamon or to even nutmeg and basil which
generally contain smaller amounts of eugenol,
the vastly different flavors signify that the
differences in taste are due to other chemicals
present within the parts of the plants we eat. In
light of the information we have such as the
relatively consistently high concentration of
eugenol in cloves, and using taste as a guide, it
seems that the most efficient source of
eugenol is cloves.
Fig. 2 Skeletal formula of eugenol.
Fig. 3 Ball and stick model of eugenol.
To further refine the plant towards pure
eugenol, distillation and selective precipitation
processes would need to be employed. If
purification was needed, distillation would
take the place of the olive oil. Eugenol has a
boiling point of 254°C and can be steam
distilled from freshly ground clove, which
sounds like a fun organic chemistry
experiment (there looks to be several example
experiments available online) [4].
Cloves’ distinctive taste is said to carry the
flavor of eugenol [5], which makes sense given
the consistently high concentration of eugenol
in cloves, which is on the order of 72-89% in
the extract [6][7]. The cloves that we eat come
from the flower part of an evergreen tree,
Syzygium aromaticum, native to Southeast
Asia [8]. The flower is dried (see figure 5) and
then often ground to a powder to be paired
with compatible foods, like coupled with
apple cider and cinnamon!
Fig. 4 Clove essential oil in clear glass vial.
From Wikipedia article.
64
in marine life research is that using pure
eugenol to immobilize fish underwater can
decrease growth and can kill off coral reefs
near the study area [12].
Eugenol has shown to be an effective
antibacterial agent, such as against Salmonella
typhi. Results of studies suggest that eugenol
can break down a bacterial cell membrane [13].
Its antibacterial properties are being developed
in nanoemulsion delivery studies to use
eugenol as a food preservative. For example,
various oils and surfactants mixed with
eugenol were tested against Staphylococcus
aureus in fruit juices and shown to be
effective against microbial spoilage [14].
Fig. 5 Cloves. From Wikipedia article.
Nature has also found some applications for
eugenol. Like its distinctive taste, it also has a
distinctive smell. For example, a Southeast
Asian orchid uses eugenol derivatives, among
other chemicals, to attract its pollinator, the
male fruit fly. The fly in turn metabolizes
methyl eugenol into a female-attracting
pheromone [15].
Interestingly, these spices containing eugenol
were so prized by humans that even regions
and treasures were traded for them. It is said
that Magellan sent back a ship of cloves from
the Spice Islands (Indonesia) which was the
most valuable spice in his time. People
believed that “clove essence could improve
vision, its powders could relieve fevers, and
mixed with milk it could enhance intercourse.
[16]
” To settle the Second Anglo-Dutch War
(1665-1667), the Dutch agreed not to press
their claims on New Netherland. In return,
they were granted an island rich in nutmeg.
New Netherland was renamed by the English
to New York. So it seems that if it wasn’t for a
derivative of eugenol (a component of
nutmeg), it may be that Americans would
speak Dutch and not English [17].
Fig. 6 Cinnamon. From Wikipedia article.
If you’ve ever tasted cloves, you may find that
it has a bitter taste with a slight tongue
numbing affect, due to eugenol. This same
affect has found its way into anesthetic
applications such as for relieving pain in
dentistry or even to immobilize organisms
during ecological research of marine life. As
in most situations where there are benefits,
there are also concerns. In dentistry, there
have been cases of severe allergic reactions
even to the point of death. Even though it is a
natural substance, in its purified form it can
cause tissue hypersensitivity and should not be
applied undiluted [11]. Patients that are
concerned about whether or not they are
allergic can take a patch test. A major concern
65
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenol
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allyl
http://www.wikihow.com/Make-Clove-Oil
http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/files.php?pid=79288&aid=1941
http://www.seriouseats.com/2011/02/spice-hunting-clove-sweet-savory-spice.html
Nassar, M. I., 2007. Chemical Constituents of Clove (Syzygium aromaticum, Fam. Myrtaceae)
and Their Antioxidant Activity.
Kamel Chaieb, Hafedh Hajlaoui, Tarek Zmantar, Amel Ben Kahla-Nakbi, Mahmoud Rouabhia,
Kacem Mahdouani and Amina Bakhrouf, 2007. The Chemical Composition and Biological
Activity of Clove Essential Oil, Eugenia caryophyllata (Syzigium aromaticum L. Myrtaceae): A
Short Review. InterScience, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother. Res. 21, 501–506.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clove
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon
Rui Wang, Ruijiang Wang, Bao Yang, 2008. Extraction of essential oils from five cinnamon
leaves and identification of their volatile compound compositions. Innovative Food Science and
Emerging Technologies 10 (2009) 289–292.
N. Sarrami, M. N. Pemberton, M. H. Thornhill, E. D. Theaker, 2002. Adverse reactions
associated with the use of eugenol in dentistry. British Dental Journal 193, 5.
S.E. Boyer, J.S. White, A.C. Stier, C.W. Osenberg, 2009. Effects of the fish anesthetic, clove oil
(eugenol), on coral health and growth. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 369,
53–57.
Devi, K.P.; Nisha, S.A.; Sakthive, R.; Pandian, S.K., 2010. Eugenol (an essential oil of clove)
acts as an antibacterial agent against Salmonella typhi by disrupting the cellular membrane. J
Ethnopharmacol. 130(1):107–15.
Vijayalakshmi Ghosh, Amitava Mukherjee, Natarajan Chandrasekaran, 2014. Eugenol-loaded
antimicrobial nanoemulsion preserves fruit juice against, microbial spoilage. Colloids and
Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 114, 392–397.
Ritsuo Nishida, Keng-Hong Tan, Suk-Ling Wee, Alvin Kah-Wei Hee, Yock-Chai Toong, 2004.
Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 32, 245–252.
http://www.history.com/topics/exploration/ferdinand-magellan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Amsterdam
66
Saving the Tallgrass Prairie
by Hayley Hickson
(English 1102)
B
elow the cement of the many strip malls covering Illinois lay the remains of the tallgrass
prairie, an ecosystem with a history spanning thousands of years in creation. At one point in
American history, the landscape enthralled visitors with its fields of color and grasses that
stretched farther than the eye could see. Eliza Steele, a young traveler entering Illinois for the first
time, writes, “A world of grass and flowers stretched around me, rising and falling in gentle
undulations, as if an enchanter had struck the ocean swell, and it was at rest forever,” (Johnson).
Unfortunately, while the beauty of the Tallgrass prairie still exists in small, fragmented patches
around the state of Illinois, most of the land has been converted into farmland and residential or
commercial areas. The purpose of this essay is to prove the need for increased tallgrass prairie
restoration across the state by providing historical examples, scientific reasoning, and viable methods
of prairie restoration.
Historically, the Tallgrass prairie has distinguished itself from the many other ecosystems of
North America for its rich biodiversity. The development of such rich land was not an overnight
phenomenon, however, as the beginnings of the prairie come from the period following the
Pleistocene glaciation. Approximately 18,000 years before the current time, most of the state of
Illinois was covered in glaciers and, when melted, converted the vegetation to a tundra-like state, and
then into a spruce forest. Between 14,000 to 10,000 years before the current time, the climate
changed into a warmer and drier atmosphere. Mesic forests, characterized by their cooler
temperatures and abundant wood life, dominated for a few thousand years until the climate became
increasingly warm and dry. At this point, approximately 8,300 years ago, most forest growth
disappeared, save for the trees dotting stream banks and rivers (Robertson).
Prairies develop from a combination of conditions too wet to be a desert and too dry to be a
forest. In Illinois specifically, the last 1,000 years has become wetter, allowing for the influx of trees,
but without human contamination, prairies would still be the dominant vegetation. According to Ken
Robertson of the Illinois Natural History Survey, prairies are controlled by three non-biological
stresses: climate, fire, and grazing. Prairies in general consist of extreme temperature ranges, so those
living in Illinois typically experience hot summers and frigid winters. Another characteristic of
prairies is the amount of rainfall per year, which can also vary. Average rainfall may surprise
travelers, as, “the annual rainfall in Champaign, Illinois is seven inches more per year than London,
England,” (Robertson) but Londoners will rarely experience the droughts found in Illinois. Severe
droughts and extended dry periods are often characteristics of prairie life.
As stated previously, their varying climate, grazing, and needed fires characterize prairies.
The extreme temperatures once deterred settlers, but nothing compared to the fear generated by fires.
Although it is undetermined, fires were most likely started by lightning or Native American tribes
(Savage 81). Nevertheless, fire is an essential aspect of maintaining tallgrass prairie health. Periodic
fires cut down woody growth and provide the soil with nutrients. When too many trees sprout in the
prairie, the shade blocks the sunlight and starts to choke the grasses. Fire stops the woody plants from
dominating, cleans out the dead grasses and nonnative plant life, and then returns the nutrients to the
soil (Robertson). However, the necessary burn periods for prairies unsettle residents to this day,
understandably, and this presents yet another problem when advocating for increased restoration
projects within the state.
67
Likewise, grazing the land is an aspect of the tallgrass prairie historically accomplished by
bison but, after settlement bison were largely exterminated and replaced by cattle (Robertson). Bison
restoration is slower in the eastern states of the prairie, as opposed to the expanse of land found in the
west, but certain sites have adopted the need for increased bison presence. Nachusa Grasslands in
Illinois will begin to add bison to the land in the fall of 2014, after incredible preparation provided by
the help of volunteers and donations. Before heavy settlement, over 30 million bison roamed the
country, but the species was nearly exterminated due to the mistreatment from early settlers and other
land profiteers. Today, the U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates that 198,000 individuals live on
private properties and 20,000 survive on public land (Delgado). These numbers are startlingly low
for such an iconic North American land mammal, but the conservation of natural prairie habitat
sustains the remaining populations.
Bison remain contenders for prairie restoration projects over their competition, cattle,
because they are a natural part of the ecosystem. Cattle were introduced after European settlers
arrived, and are prevalent today because of the accustomed American diet to beef. However, cattle
accomplish the same tasks as Bison, but they accomplish it less effectively. Bison are wonderful
contributors to the land because they wallow in the soil, “creat[ing] openings for other kinds of
plants,” (Savage 112), clear out unnecessary woody vegetation and forbs, and eat grass, which
promotes healthier growth. Grazing is an essential aspect of healthy prairie, but also of healthy land
in general. As stated in the beginning of this essay, increased prairie restoration will be explained
using scientific and historical evidence – the existence of scientific research as the basis for bison at
sites like Nachusa, FermiLab, or Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie (Fall 2014 possibly) prove that
increased restoration is approved by a wide range of professionals.
Returning to the other two attributes of the prairie, fire and climate, both stalled the
development of the tallgrass prairie for a hundred years or so but, after the development of the John
Deere plow, settlers attempted to weather the country. Tallgrass prairies can grow higher than most
people, and their height is the landscape’s trademark. The types of tall grasses that grows such as
Indian grass, Big and Little Blue Stem, Switchgrass, Prairie Dropseed, and Side-oats Grama among
many others, achieve this height. Because the landscape appeared so difficult to navigate, early
explorers thought the land beautiful, but infertile (Robertson). The tremendous height deterred
farming, but after the creation of the plow, settlers soon realized that they had stumbled upon one of
the most fertile, if not the most fertile, areas of the world.
“Although the majority of original prairies in Illinois have been destroyed, there are still a
number of areas where people can see prairies,” writes Ken Robertson in his essay entitled, The
Tallgrass Prairie in Illinois. After the discovery of fertile lands, pioneers rapidly converted the
grasslands into farmland, and the Industrial Age changed the land into residential and commercial
use. Today, the tallgrass prairie, which previously spanned thousands of acres, occupies less than
0.02% of its former domain. Locally, sites like the Schulenburg Prairie at the Morton Arboretum,
Gooselake Prairie, Fermilab, SpringBrook prairie, and the Russell Kirk site at the College of DuPage
are available for visitation (Robertson). The remainder of the Tallgrass prairie exists in remnants and
fragments scattered across the state, including a national restoration project at Midewin National
Tallgrass Prairie.
Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie was created through the Illinois Land Conservation Act
of 1995 on February 10, 1996, and was signed by President Clinton. It is the first federally
designated sanction for Tallgrass prairie and continues to be of importance today (Robertson). The
prairie spans over 19,000 acres, and remains the, “largest piece of contiguous open space in
northeastern Illinois,” (Midewin). Using volunteer support, the site nurtures prairie restoration while
maintaining areas for human recreation, such as hiking, bird watching, biking, hunting, and
horseback riding.
68
One of the interesting features of the prairie is the renovation of the land from its previous
arsenal space in Joliet, to an area that both benefits the community and the health of the land. When
discussing prairie restoration and opposition to developing new prairies, it is important to remember
that restoration can begin in places misused and neglected, and change a destitute area into
aesthetically pleasing land. Prairies are necessary to restore because they return the land to its natural
state – this means that instead of farmland, tall grasses and wildlife can return. Farmland can be
beneficial for human resources but also incredibly damaging, as land farmed annually begins to
deteriorate the soil and rob it of its nutrients, thus creating very poor land. When the land becomes
poor, it will cease to sustain life for an extended period, and cause occurrences such as drought and
subsequent hunger.
Many people oppose new prairie restoration sites because they replace areas for commercial
use, but as with the Midewin Nation Tallgrass Prairie, lands that are no longer life sustaining, or
abandoned, can become prairie. Therefore, both commercial and natural needs would be met. This is
the situation regarding Springbrook Prairie in Will County, where citizens agreed to create a prairie
with recreation instead of further construction. Regardless, prairie restoration is a difficult task,
consisting of many volunteers and often hard labor. Even at Midewin the site is in continual
construction, as reconstruction is time consuming and labor intensive. According to Daryl Smith in
The Tallgrass Prairie Center Guide to Prairie Restoration in the Upper Midwest, “a reconstruction
consisting of a diverse, species-rich seed mixture will undergo successional stages and exhibit
changes in species composition and species domination for decades,” (Smith 9) meaning that
reconstruction does not end with planting, but is the beginning of a beautiful journey.
After the decision to restore land has been made, site preparation, seed selection, planting
methodology, and prescribed burns follow. When deciding to allow for bison, setting a prescribed
burn team, or deciding which native plants to grow, setting goals that can be accomplished allow for
an easier transition. As soon discussed in this paper, conflict often follows the restoration process,
but, “the prairie [is] a region of expectant watchfulness, and life a perpetual contrast of work and
idleness, hope and misgiving,” (Grierson 2). The discussions surrounding the restoration process may
be long and arduous, but the prairie has the unrivaled ability to persevere against human folly,
rivaling the dedication of the few who advocate for its very existence.
Conversely, the increase in restoration projects does not come without complications. Even
amongst those in favor of environmentalism, there is a disagreement between those who advocate for
the prairies and those who advocate for the trees. Restoration is a point of agreement between the two
opposing forces, but the restoration of which ecosystem began an argument that would lead to a
moratorium. In May 1996, the two divided groups of environmentalists disagreed on whether to
destroy forests in favor of restoring natural grasslands, the tallgrass prairie. In Char Miller’s review
of Restoring Nature: Perspectives from the Social Sciences and Humanities, edited by Paul Gobster
and Bruce Hull, the controversy allowed for the assessment of, “Americans’ perceptions of the
tangled relationship between nature and culture,” (Gobster 169). The majority of views indicate a
need to preserve nature based on cultural inundation, but a lack of full scientific reasoning among the
public, and sometimes the professional, spheres inhibits the ability to conserve intelligently. This is
the reason behind moratoriums and political disagreements – neither party fully understands what lies
in the best interest for both people and nature.
Acclaimed journalist and nature writer Richard Manning believes that, “industrialism is
rational and progressive; it has an agenda based on our assumption that we understand how things
work,” (Manning 262). In truth, the conflict between industrialists and environmentalists and the
inner conflict between environmentalists stems from overconfidence in understanding something that
is so complex. This lack of understanding is not an excuse for lowering restoration sites, but should
stand as a proponent of increased conservation. While disagreements will still occur, without actual
scientific experimentation, the general public will not have the chance to finally grasp why
69
restoration is important. Without the courage of trial and error, the science will remain undiscovered.
One of the senior editors of the National Geographic, Robert Paul Jordan, writes in 1967,
“the men who explored this land for France would marvel at the expanding industrial network that is
filling in the open spaces along the Illinois River Valley from the Chicago area to St. Louis,” (Jordan
581). A statement made in the last few decades still rings true today. Expansion is the motto of
Illinois, and conservation is continually labeled as unimportant, despite the overwhelming scientific
evidence that proves otherwise. Unfortunately, the destruction of the tallgrass prairie has, “seriously
depleted the diverse and irreplaceable genetic resources found in nature” (Madson 258). The
consequences of these actions will remain high unless further action is taken. Harmony must strike
between the needs of the people and the conservation of the land, because the effects of pollution,
mismanagement of the land, extinction of species, and the destruction of necessary nutrients will
cause irreparable damage to future generations.
Naturalist and poet John Madson writes in Where the Sky Began: Land of the Tallgrass
Prairie, that the, “tallgrass prairie is of historical and cultural interest and of high biological worth”
(Madson 257), but the conservation of such areas relies on the dedication of those willing to save it.
Saving the Tallgrass prairie is greater than advocating for a single species because the land itself is
endangered. Along with the disappearance of the land, species that have existed solely on the land for
generations will cease to exist. Throughout this paper, the scientific evidence of the importance of
bison and the preservation of soil nutrients proves the necessity of conservation. The historical
evidence from Nachusa and Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie elaborate on these statistics, and the
acknowledgement of the struggles with restoration allows for the irrefutable decision to increase
conservation. Regardless of the difficulties, without the attempt to save something still
misunderstood, this country will lose countless natural artifacts. Saving the tallgrass prairie is more
than saving aesthetically pleasing lands; it is saving a forgotten way of life.
Works Cited
Delgado, Jennifer. “Preserve Set for Return of Bison.” Chicago Tribune: 6. Apr 22 2014. ProQuest.
Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
Gobster, Paul H, and R Bruce Hull. “Restoring Nature: Perspectives from The Social Sciences and
Humanities.” Restoration Ecology 10.1 (2002): 169. Academic Search Complete. Web. 30
April 2014.
Grierson, Francis. “Proem.” Introduction. The Valley of Shadows. New York: Harper & Row, 1966.
1-3. Print.
Johnson, Christopher. “Restoring the prairie: the Tallgrass waves once more in the Midwest.” E JulyAug. 2007: 14+. Environmental Studies and Policy. Web. 21 Apr. 2014.
Jordan, Robert P. “Illinois.” Prairie State: Impressions of Illinois, 1673-1967, by Travelers and
Other Observers. Comp. Paul M. Angle. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1968. 578-94. Print.
Madson, John. Where the Sky Began: Land of the Tallgrass Prairie. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982. Print.
Manning, Richard. Grassland: The History, Biology, Politics, and Promise of the American Prairie.
New York: Viking, 1995. Print.
“Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie.” Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie - Home. United States
Department of Agriculture, n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014. <http://www.fs.usda.gov/midewin>.
70
Robertson, Ken. “The Tallgrass Prairie in Illinois.” The Tallgrass Prairie in Illinois. Illinois Natural
History Survey, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2014.
Savage, Candace. Prairie: A Natural History. Vancouver, B.C.: David Suzuki Foundation, 2004. Print.
Smith, Daryl. The Tallgrass Prairie Center Guide to Prairie Restoration in the Upper Midwest. Iowa
City: Published for the Tallgrass Prairie Center by the U of Iowa, 2010. Print.
71
The Four Humours Theory
by Hope Javier
(Honors Chemistry 1552)
A
t the time when disease was believed to have been the doing of the devil, ancient Greek
philosophers provided an observable, yet primitive, approach. Led by Hippocrates in 400
B.C.E, this theory remained uncontested for nearly two thousand years influencing both
Western and Eastern medicine, proposing that the human body consisted of four major fluids or
humours that must be maintained in equilibrium in order to promote a good well-being. Known as
the Four Humours Theory, it sought to explain the cause of diseases. Although the theory remained
dominant throughout much of the medieval era, the conception of the 16th century, followed by the
development of modern medicine, marked its end.
One must ask, how did such theory come about? The Four Humours Theory was a
compilation of work based upon the ideas of many philosophers, including of ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia, even before the birth of Hippocrates. However, the structural foundations for the
theory were comprised of the extended work of the pre-Socratic Greek philosophers such as
Anaximander, Pythagoras, and Alcmaron. From these philosophers, Hippocrates assembled their
ideas, such as the four underlying elements of nature, the importance of hot, cold, wet, and dry to
one's health, and the significance of maintaining balance in the body, which established the
foundation for the Four Humours Theory. Such ideas were well accepted during the period when
mythologies, religion, and superstition guided much of the people's understanding regards to disease
and medicine. However, it was not until a Roman physician, Claudius Galen, started to spread and
popularize the idea that the theory generated much influence. Derived from the work of Hippocrates,
the Four Humours Theory finally came into formal existence in an effort to provide explanation for
the cause of diseases. Through written works, Galen influenced much of the entire Western and
Eastern world, in which Islamic medical practitioners grasped strongly during the 11th century.
The fundamental concept of the Four Humours Theory relied heavily on the four fluids or
humours that were thought to comprise the human body. These humours were: phlegm, blood,
yellow bile, and black bile. According to a publication of the Harvard University Press, The Classical
Tradition, the four humours were believed to exist in cycles according to the seasons and
constellations, revealing the strong influence of astrology on the theory. For instance, an illness
during the winter was considered to be affected by an imbalance in phlegm, which caused respiratory
and chest problems. On the contrary, an illness that occurred during the summer was associated with
yellow bile, which resulted in fever, bad temper, liver disorder, and so forth. The other two humours,
black bile and blood were associated with autumn and spring, respectively. As a result, in order to
balance the humours, the constituent treatments were based on opposites. For example, to counter the
over saturation of phlegm, which was associated the coldness of winter, it must be treated with hot
substances. Likewise, warm illness that occurs during the summer was thought to affect the yellow
bile humour, in this case cold treatments were used. Furthermore, in an article by N.S Gill, “The
Hippocratic Method and The Four Humours of Medicine”, it states that the four humours were
associated with the supposed natural elements: water, earth, fire, and air. The humour phlegm was
attributed with water, blood with air, yellow bile with fire, and black bile with earth. Ultimately, the
relationship of the humours with the seasons and the natural elements provided an understanding that
72
imbalance within the body was the underlying cause of diseases.
Moreover, observation played a vital role in providing support for the Four Humours Theory.
According to Chris Rohmann's, A World of Ideas: A Dictionary of Important Theories, Concepts,
Beliefs, and Thinkers, the Four Humours Theory followed the idea that an individual's well-being
was defined by their characteristic complexion or temperament, which correlated with the qualities of
the four elements and their relationships with the four humours. For example, one who had too much
phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile, were identified to have the personality traits that were
phlegmatic, sanguine, choleric, and melancholic, respectively. The physicians that followed the Four
Humours Theory diagnosed their patients based on the personality observations. Furthermore, the
physicians that followed the Four Humours Theory observed the patient's physical properties that
correlate with the associated nature elements and seasons of the humour. For example, people that
were hot to the sense of touch were believed to have imbalanced yellow bile, the humour that was
associated with the summer season. Evidently, the Four Humours Theory included scientific premise
of observation and was a major advancement compared to the preceding ideas that relied heavily on
mere superstitions and mystical powers to explain the cause of diseases.
However, the treatments that were formulated based on the Hippocratic idea revealed the
blunders of the Four Humours Theory. According to David C. Linberg's, The Beginnings of Western
Science, bloodletting was a common treatment in maintaining the humours of the body. Linberg
writes that prior to bloodletting, the physician would observe the patient for days. Although the Four
Humours Theory established a scientific approach in diagnosis, the positive outcomes of the
bloodletting treatment were mere the result of the placebo effect. For example, the hierarchy of
society placed the physicians in a respected, higher degree. As a result, patients often believed that
physicians had immense knowledge on the treatment, which in turn caused them to feel better, even
though bloodletting was far from beneficial. The blunders of such treatment outweighed the benefits.
For example, the 17th century king of England, Charles II, was treated with bloodletting in order to
combat a seizure. Unsurprisingly, this implicated the king's death. In addition, losing blood reduces
the oxygen level dramatically, causing severe complications. Unfortunately, many more treatments
based on the Four Humours Theory were practiced without much great success, including forced
puking, blood leeching, and even breathing in the odor of pig manure to treat nose bleed were,
unsurprisingly, ineffective. Clearly, the Four Humours Theory formulated treatments that would
otherwise be deemed absurd today.
Interestingly, the Four Humours Theory remained unchallenged in Europe for many centuries
primarily due to the primitive established scientific knowledge, or lack thereof, during the years of its
existence. Especially with the digression of human civilization following the bubonic plague, much
of the understanding of human disease leaned toward spiritual and superstition venue, which made
the Four Humours Theory highly attractive. According to the Encyclopedia of Britannica, it was not
until a 16th century German-Swiss physician named Philippus von Hohenheim, commonly known as
Paracelsus, introduced the foundation for modern medicine. Unlike Hippocrates, Paracelsus
emphasized that diseases were caused by the body being harmed by outside forces and chemicals
found in nature provided cures for the diseases. Furthermore, Paracelsus rejected the four humours of
the body. Rather, Paracelsus believed that outside forces, not humours, were the culprit of diseases.
The further rejection of the Four Humours Theory was accompanied by the advancements through
the scientific revolution during the Renaissance. Ultimately, the changes in both the principles of the
people as well as the development of modern science ended the long rule of the Four Humours
Theory.
73
Undoubtedly, the Four Humours Theory has widely been rejected to this day. The idea of
having fluids that govern the whole well-being of an individual, both controlled by the elements of
nature and the seasons, surely seem highly absurd in modern essence with the establishment of
modern medicine. In retrospect, the principles and treatments that were formulated as a result of the
Four Humours Theory prove highly inaccurate in describing the cause of diseases. Unfortunately, the
strong effects of mythologies, religion, and superstition in the ancient societies allowed domination
of the Four Humours Theory for nearly two thousand years.
Works Cited
The Classical Tradition. Eds. Anthony Grafton, Glen W. Most, and Salvatore Settis. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 2010. Print.
Gill, N.S. “Four Humors.” About.com Ancient / Classical History. N.p., 2013. Web. 04 Nov. 2013.
Lindberg, David C. The Beginnings of Western Science. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1992. Print.
Parker, Richard G. “The Hippocratic Humoural Theory: A Proper Philosophical and Historical
Context.” The Rational Argumentator 14 (2003). Web. 04 Nov. 2013.
“Paracelsus.” Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 04 Nov. 2013.
Rohmann, Chris. A World of Ideas: A Dictionary of Important Theories, Concepts, Beliefs, and
Thinkers. New York: The Ballantine Publishing Group. 1999. Print.
74
Communicative Action via Internet Technologies
by Jonathan Kaye
(Philosophy 1800)
A
bstract: The purpose of this study was to analyze the work of German philosopher Jürgen
Habermas, focusing on his theory of communicative action. In his work, Habermas
specifically probes the epistemological question; how human beings can know anything at
all? Through an interconnected scheme of: survival challenges, knowledge and action; there is found
grounding for the physical sciences, the social sciences and philosophy itself. Communicative action
becomes the “glue” that holds society together in reference to those sciences, for Habermas,
communicative action is how shared meaning about the world is established and it is through
communicative action and based on communicative action that humanity can be gauged on a
progressive path to freedom from social domination. Habermas used his theory to critique mass
communication such as news and entertainment within that framework. This paper expands that
critique asking the pros and cons of the use of social media for mass communication; suggesting that
in many aspects it is a positive force for the furthering of knowledge through communication,
however there may be limits and distortions to communication that inhibit the growth of further
knowledge due to the use of technology that leads to a lack of face to face connection.
Jürgen Habermas was born in Dusseldorf, Germany in 1929. As the Nazi party came to
power in 1933 his family moved to Gummersbach, where he would grow up. In 1939 he was enlisted
in the Hitler youth, in which he served and later was drafted as a military reservist for the homeland
defense until in 1944. After the war, Habermas became interested in the philosophical existentialist
movement. His major influences at that time were Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980) and Martin
Heidegger (1889-1976). Habermas would break with much of existentialist study eventually, due to
Heidegger’s refusal to abandon his pro-Nazi stance even a decade after the regime had fallen.
Beginning his academic career at the Frankfurt School where he would be educated in the
thought of Critical Theory, Habermas came under the tutelage of such thinkers as Theodor Adorno
(1903-1969), Max Horkheimer (1895-1973) and Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979). The Frankfurt
School had long followed the Marxist method of social critique. Habermas’ mentors would apply this
Marxist critique to the capitalist state, to freedom and equality. They would argue these ideals of
freedom and equality, were for the wealthy and not all people. They contended that, what they called
Humanistic Marxism, did not conflict with liberal ideals, but just the reality in which those ideals
existed, claiming that liberalism both legitimated and contradicted modern capitalism. (Ingram 5)
In his preliminary academic career, Habermas would pursue studies in sociology and
economics, earning a master of social science degree. He spent his time developing a theory of
psychoanalytic social critique. He argued that ideology was a mass social delusion and that along
with unthinking conformity to authority are social neuroses, grounded in societal repression of basic
instincts aimed at individual and social fulfillment. His conclusion was that further emancipation of
society came through unlimited and undistorted communication.
By 1964, Habermas replaced his mentors and became the chair of philosophy and Sociology
at Frankfurt. In 1971, in pursuing linguistics, Habermas developed a philosophy of language and
investigated the relation between moral development and a theory of rational communicative
competence. Habermas’ Theory of Communicative Action was published in 1984. In this work he
argued that communicative action was a basic necessity for the evolution of society. Furthermore, he
added that economic and administrative tendencies serve in undermining democratic ideals implicit
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in interaction and communication.
The pursuit of this paper will be to investigate and explicate Habermas’ theory of
communicative action with practical applications to today’s society. I will discuss the implications of
Habermas’ theory in view of the current form of global social communication. I will take on
Habermas’ communication theory to assess the state of communication in society with the
advancement of technologies that instantaneously, and potentially without limit or distortion, connect
people for the purpose of communication. I shall frame Habermas’ arguments in reference to the
arguments that brought his stance about; questions of knowledge and action as well as those on the
relationships between science and philosophy. I will layout his major theses, defining major terms of
importance, for the purpose of representing his argument in a critique of mass communication.
Communication is one of those terms that becomes difficult to define without using the term
itself in the definition. As a form of communication, language uses a system of symbols that
represent ideas; therefore, it is not communication itself. Communication is a system, an anthology of
separate but related methods to convey ideas and thoughts. Methods of communication will not be
discussed, because investigations into kinesics and non-verbal communication are not necessary for
this paper, I will consult the use of verbal and written language communication only and the
mediation therein. What is important is the conveyance of thoughts and ideas through language.
When I say something about something, I am also saying that I know something about
something. For instance in this paper I am saying something about Habermas, therefore I imply that I
know something about Habermas. Before an attempt to discuss communication can be made; we
must first discuss knowledge. Historically there have been basically two ways that philosophers
claim that humans answer the question of how we know what we know. The two views of knowledge
have, through time, been thought to be separate and opposed, which has led many philosophers to
look at the dilemma in the terms, of reason vs. experience.
On the one side there have been philosophers, who follow René Descartes, (1596-1650) who
in his Meditations doubts the reliability of experience of physical objects. The view holds on to a
subjective world of thought as the means of knowing, through reasoning, of one’s own existence. On
the other side of the debate, are those who say that all knowledge comes from experience, such as
David Hume (1711-1776) in Concerning Human Understanding. One comes to expect something to
occur only because it has repetitively and reliably on past occasions. The debate casts scientific
empiricism vs. philosophic rationality. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) in his, Critique of Pure Reason,
argues that pure reason is unreliable, Kant however applies reason to knowledge inquiries of natural
phenomena in experience which constitutes both knowledge of the self and the world. Kant attempts
to bridge the gap of dissent between reason and experience by creating a scientific use for reason
concerning natural phenomena in which a synthesis of reason and experience occurs to connect
thoughts and organize the experience.
Habermas addresses two major movements that come from these developments: scientism
and nihilism. Habermas explains positivism is a form of scientism initiated by Auguste Comte (17891859) and then later expanded upon by Karl Popper (1902-1994), arguing that interpretations of
events are meaningless as they cannot be observed, that theories are only useful as much as they
provide falsifiable hypotheses and that philosophic reflection was insufficient compared to the
scientific method, therefore positivism is morally uncertain. Popper argued that social moral norms
could not be universally verified and must be accepted on faith. In his work Knowledge and Human
Interest, Habermas calls Popper uncritical and reactionary. (46) He argues that norms can be
evaluated for consistency and consequences, in order to further ends that can be tested against ideals
and universal interests. Habermas realizes here that he has a problem of finding the ideals and
interests; that humans have developed false desires in the modern cycle of work and consumption.
He answers this problem with the idea that language is holistic and contextual. Rule governed speech
acts that coordinate around a way of life become meaningful when they are structured, constituted
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and identified by the intentions of an actor. Therefore, this intentional action can be understood and
interpreted, within the context of a way of life. Language and action then express norms and interest
that are publically demonstrable and capable of regulating private moral decisions. Habermas
criticizes positivism as a contradiction. Since the idea of science as the only reliable source of
knowledge is not a science itself; it fails its own criteria. Therefore, positivism does not justify
science. Habermas wants to develop a science that explains the meaning of human actions; that can
find a new way to gain an understanding of the action and intention.
Nihilism is founded in opposition to the philosophies of Georg Hegel (1770-1831) and Karl
Marx (1818-1883); they both argued reason to be emancipatory. Hegel argued reason to be the
human spirit. Marx argued that reason with technology would lead to universal freedom. Friederich
Nietzsche (1844-1900) would argue however that reason is but a tool of a will to power, to gain
control of nature. He also claimed that by freeing agents from nature, reason binds agents to social
laws; reason dominates! Nihilism implies that the will creates meaning and value, therefore nothing
has intrinsic value and there is no meaning in experience. To gain freedom from the domination of
reason, one must abandon reason’s control over action through morality and norm boundaries
thereby shedding morality, one becomes elite. What occurs, in nihilism, is that instead of a
reasonable science aimed at understanding the world of material and ideal, for the purpose of
advancing the human species toward freedom, there is a scientific rational aimed at controlling
humans and nature through natural behavioral science.
Habermas argues that natural sciences cannot aid any understanding of morality and social
actions on the part of the actor. While his most recent predecessors, such as Heidegger, had advised a
morally relativistic new science approach that explains action based on each individual society’s use
of science and technology, Habermas wants to employ a science that is more universal. His argument
is that a moral cultural relativity leads to a lack of true critique. Standards of critique become subject
to each circumstance, therefore each circumstance is understood by its own standard. Therefore, if a
society were to choose a nihilistic mode of thought, and were to experiment on humans, against their
will, then that society could claim justification based on their own moral standard, giving insight to
cultural justification of actions but failing to understand any true general human moral standard.
In order to have a science that can claim knowledge to aid the pursuit of finding grounding
for a human moral standard, Habermas shows how it is possible to use critical theory with practical
intent in the general interest of human beings. His first thesis in developing this science is, “the
achievements of the transcendental subject have their basis in the natural history of the human
species”. (Knowledge and Human Interests 312) This transcendental subject is the entire shared
subjective experience; it is the subjective experience of the entire human species. In looking to
human evolution and the emergence of culture, by combining the objective and subjective
experience, there can be an understanding of the human nature and the human drive through
reasoning to be free from nature.
There are three categories of knowledge each of which is oriented by non-subjective values
or interests. This knowledge is necessary for survival and possesses unique methods for refining
basic kinds of survival based action. The human being is met with three basic survival challenges that
correspond to the three knowledge categories: natural scarcity, absence of social coordination and
social domination. These three challenges each in turn bring about certain interests: to gain technical
control over the environment, to unite with others around common values, and freedom. These
interests are then realized with certain kinds of action. Instrumental action which is experimental, is
based on behavioral feedback, this action constitutes knowledge of a sense world of material objects.
Communicative action finds mutual understanding of a social world of persons, norms, and meanings
connected by a reflective narrative. Finally, critical reflection examines the causes of beliefs, to
discover and remove impediments to knowledge. Therefore, from instrumental action actors receive
material knowledge, from communicative action they form social knowledge, and from reflective
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thought actors gain knowledge of what hinders knowledge. (KHI II)
Reason serves to preserve the species and functions as an evolutionary adaptation. Here we
can think of reason as philosophical reflection, gaining knowledge of knowledge, but, this reflection
is also more than knowledge it is also practice. “In the power of self-reflection, knowledge and
interest are one.” (KHI 314) Unconscious human desire coupled with conscious reflection shows an
option. Instead of being compelled toward the unconscious desire, reflection frees the agent to
choose an action based on values beyond instinctive survival. Therefore, Habermas also states that,
“knowledge serves as an instrument of and transcends mere self-preservation”. (KHI 313)
Instrumental actions serve an experimental role. For instance, C then E is a statement of
knowledge that cannot be verified unless you remove C in order to observe whether you still have E.
Observing in itself is not enough to gain knowledge that is reliable. Habermas is showing the validity
of applied reason in scientific knowledge. “Meanings of properties are defined in terms of
instrumental action.” (KHI 130) Instrumental action establishes powers and properties that
distinguish causal knowledge from random association through habit, by employing the experimental
method over time actors come to have genuine knowledge constituting a transcendent material world.
Through instrumental action, knowledge is also obtained as to how the world of material objects
responds to what the actor does; it is dialectic of material well-being between subject and object.
Knowledge that is gained is then applied to unburden agents of functions; imposing them unto
technological instruments. The invention of the wheel is an example of a result of this kind of action.
Instead of having to carry my load on my back, I can load a cart that is wheeled and push or pull it.
This kind of technological progress necessitates a community of investigators which is held together
by communication that tests hypothesis for results to reach accepted conclusions. (Ingram)
Communicative action is how mutual agreement and understandings of meanings, values and
norms constitute identification, in which the self requires others in recognition to form a biography.
These biographies apply to both the entire human condition as well as the context of the intentions of
the individual agents involved. These intentions need to be understood to understand the meaning of
action. Understanding action creates familiarity of the new by proxy to what is already known
through communication between an internal self and self-story as well as, an external communication
between the self and others. Communicative action forms social worlds of social organization.
Within this social organization Habermas says that “knowledge constitutive interest take form in the
medium of work, language and power.” (KHI 313) Work corresponds to instrumental action,
language to communicative action, and power to reflection.
“The structure of communication anticipates truth, freedom, justice and happiness.” (KHI
314) Language is communicative action involving agents who are free of distortion with the use of
reason in the aim of reaching understanding through argumentation that raises validity claims. When
an actor speaks they are speaking to be understood, they must say something that can be understood,
therefore they must attempt to be understood and in turn reach a mutual agreement with another.
Communication can continue only if validity claims that are mutually argued are understood to be
justified. (What is Universal Pragmatics? 2) If an actor thinks validity claims to be justified, they
engage in discourse or, argumentative speech in which, they give reasons for the claim. Then the
hearing actors in this situation can then either accept the reasons or give his/her own reasons against
them for understanding. This argumentative discourse is used “to bring about an agreement that
terminates in the intersubjective mutuality of reciprocal understanding, shared knowledge, mutual
trust and accord with one another.” (WUP 3) Through argumentation the actors realize one material
world as well as the transcendence or interchangeability of the personal experience of phenomena.
From argumentative speech there is explicit then, a communicative rationality that is the use
of reason in having knowledge of what is sound in an argument. This rationality is employed to judge
claims, as well as defend them against rational criticism. Therefore, arguments can be made beyond
the material into moral claims based on communicative action; these claims can be judged rationally,
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can satisfy reason, or be argued about until mutually reasonable and agreeable to all parties engaged
and then be defended by reason leading to a consensus of the masses. Habermas thinks he has
grounded his new science that looks to reflect philosophically on communicative and instrumental
actions in moral terms. (Ingram)
Applying his social critique to society in its current form, there is an argument that the
communicative consensus is constrained, because the state has become an agent of a ruling class that
through ideology and violence exercises power over the ruled. Traditions have come to conceal the
deviation from ideals implicit in communication such as truth, freedom and justice. Communication
implies equality of all parties involved since all are engaged in the process of coming to
understanding. Traditions and ideologies serve to undermine equality. Religion for example creates a
tradition that validates hierarchy and domination such as in medieval kingdoms. Capitalism then
abolishes that validation, with the free market that supposes the ideal of universal equality, in which
wages become a communicative action of equal exchange for mutual benefit. Ideals of freedom in
communication are still lost in capitalism however, as we see, freedom, equality and happiness are
the general interest of the social agent, but through consumer freedom and fulfillment, private
property and wage labor have created relations between people that are exploitive, undemocratic,
unjust and detrimental. Competition breeds inequality because there has to be a loser. In order to win
certain values such as honesty and fairness may have to be shed. Hiring the cheapest labor and
selling products at the highest value possible are neither fair nor honest. A visit to any of the websites
of organizations such as: the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and
Human Rights Watch will provide evidence of vast disparity that exists globally; starvation and
disease from extreme poverty and grave social injustices including violence and subjugation are
found to be imposed upon many peoples.
Habermas argues three major points in his article, Political Communication in Media Society.
His first issue is a lack of face-to-face interaction between present participants in a shared practice of
collective decision making. He follows that there is a lack of reciprocity between the roles of
speakers and addressees in an egalitarian exchange of claims and opinions. Finally, arguing that the
dynamics of mass communication are driven by the power of the media to select, and shape the
presentation of, messages and by the strategic use of political and social power to influence the
agendas as well as the triggering and framing of public issues. (PCMS 14-15) In the globalized
public sphere, political and social powers are exercised with the backing of economic power at a near
universal level, taking place in the realms of campaign finance and commercial advertising especially
in the more economically and technologically developed nations. Economically powerful interests,
through their own capital, influence what the audience will perceive their choices to be. Therefore,
the economic power structure of the public sphere may well distort the dynamics of mass
communications. (PCMS 418) Furthermore, social deprivation and cultural exclusion of citizens
explain the selective access to and uneven participation in mass communication, whereas the
colonization of the public sphere by market imperatives leads to a peculiar paralysis of civil society.
(PCMS 421-422) What then is necessary to promote further removal of distortions and limitations to
communication for the purpose of removing roadblocks to freedom and happiness?
Habermas argues that, “we should not seek the explanation in the paralyzed state of civil
society but in the content and formats of a degenerating kind of political communication itself,”
pointing out that, “issues of political discourse become assimilated into and absorbed by the modes
and contents of entertainment and advertising; besides personalization, the dramatization of events,
the simplification of complex matters, and the vivid polarization of conflicts promote civic privatism
and a mood of anti-politics”. (PCMS 422)
In expanding Habermas’ argument to include the use of internet technologies I argue that
while Habermas is correct in pointing to the connection between entertainment and politics, the
argument should be that forms of entertainment and social networks can be formats for political
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debate; the issue is still that economic power is the cause of any inequality in those formats. Who
gets heard is whoever can afford to pay to be heard. While it is true that there is a large amount of
anonymity online, allowing agents to be free from fear, it is also recognized then, that this anonymity
can be used to distort information. Instead of pointing to the anonymous aspect as problematic the
focus should be on the reasons for the possibility of distortions, namely power relations relating to
economics and politics.
Mass communication has proven itself to be a social power in the face of economic and
political power. For example, social media networks aided the organization of people’s risings in:
Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Syria during the recent Arab Spring, although the outcomes of these
situation are quite unsure. Political issues are debated between every-day people on a daily basis,
from war to homosexual marriage, nearly the world over. The obstacles to consensus are not in the
format of communication, the disconnection is between the people and their policy makers. Looking
back to the invasion of Iraq by the US in 2003, there was a breakdown in the discourse concerning
the debate over the invasion. Almost unanimously there was no news media network that spoke
against the war, in circumstances where people did show dissent they were silenced and ignored.
An example is Phil Donahue from MSNBC, a news commentator who was fired for expressing his
objection to the beginning of hostilities against Iraq and Afghanistan following the 9/11 terrorist
attacks.
There was a state sanctioned control over communication to sway perception of the
circumstances. Therefore, while mass communication is a power in the face of power, it is still one
that can be managed by a controlling class working in their own interest and not those of the human
species, gaining personal profit at the expense of the freedom of others. The removal of powerful
economic interest from social and political communication networks is necessary to alleviate the
skewed power relations that allow this kind of control to occur. Communication is an exchange of
ideas that implies equality, when the very issues debated are controlled this equality is lost. The
internet does provide an avenue to expand upon debated issues with hopes of restoring equality.
The use of the internet in some respect allows a level of equality of opportunity of exchange,
yet, fails to grant a total equality. I say there is the opportunity for equality because everyone who
can gain access to the internet can make their mark in cyberspace; this does not guarantee an
audience however. True face to face contact would.
Finally, communication has taken one wound for sure in the deterioration of language in
itself that is beginning to occur with the growth of net-speak such as, lol, hmu, smh, r u thr, so on...
I would argue that this “on-the-go” lifestyle that has taken over portions of the developed world has
caused the issue where our culture of technology allows people to be so connected to everything
around the clock; from work to the news, from family to personal relations that many begin to feel so
pressed for time that even the language used suffers.
The human species survives based upon its ability to gain information, judge that information
and act upon it in a continuous and cyclical system that enhances techniques to finding information,
deciding what information is valuable and how best to act upon that information. The systems of
enhancement are held together by their deliberative fashion utilizing communication to build
consensus. Since communication is universal among humans, and it is utilized to build mutual
understanding and trust in its conception, it is a basis for establishing a universal code of ethics.
A universal code of ethics can be set forth through communication, reason and evidence. Gauging the
level of communication and exchange of real information gives insight to the health of a society.
In this sense communicative action, as theory, provides a comprehensive tool that can bring insight to
issues including: economic imbalances, power struggles, and distortions to what is knowledge in
itself.
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Works Cited
Descartes, Rene. “Meditations on First Philosophy.” n.d. Wright.edu. web. 28 12 2005.
Habermas, Jurgen. Knowledge and Human Interest. Boston: Beacon Press, 1971. print.
—. “Political Communication in Media Society: Does Democracy Still Enjoy an Epistemic
Dimension? The Impact of Normative Theory on Empirical Research.” Communication
Theory vol. 16 from the International Communication Association (2006): 411-426. web.
—. “What is Universal Pragmatics from” Communication and the Evolution of Society. Boston:
Beacon Press, 1979. print.
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrick. “The Philosophy of Right.” McNeil, William. Continental
Philosophy. Oxford: Blackwell, 2005. 205-214. print.
Hume, David. An enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Oxford: Oxford Press, 1777. web.
2/16/2012.
Ingram, David. Habermas: Introduction and Analysis. New York: Cornell Press, 2010. Print.
Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Pure Reason. Koenigsberg, 1787. web.
Key of abbreviated terms: KHI - Knowledge and Human Interest
PCMS - Political Communication in Mass Society
81
Pediatrics: Because We Care About the ‘Little World’
by Syeda Khalid
(English 1102)
T
he young boy cries profusely in pain, while the parents stand frightened at the sight. Handing
in a lollipop with a smile of compassion, the pediatrician calms the young boy to find out
where truly the problem lies. The pediatrician knows exactly what she is doing. Sure about
bacterial infection, she prescribes some medicines and says farewell to the boy with a hope to see
him with a big happy smile the next time they meet. This is what a pediatrician is here for, to care for
the little troubles of the little ones.
Pediatrics is a branch of medicine, a specialty, which deals with the health care of infants,
children and adolescents. It is a “young specialty, scarcely 200 years old” (Luecke 56). The first
separate pediatrics hospital was founded in 1855 in Philadelphia. However, the father of pediatrics in
the United States is considered a German pediatrician, Dr. Abraham Jacobi. In 1861, Dr. Jacobi
formed pediatrics chair at New York Medical College as well as organized numerous pediatric
societies, started a number of pediatric journals, and established children's departments in various
New York hospitals.
According to the Illinois Career Information System (CIS), a pediatrician’s main focus is on
“preventing problems before they begin” ("Pediatricians" 1). They see the youngest patients for
frequently scheduled visits—such as well-baby checks where the child’s growth, weight and
development are examined. Working at a hospital or a private clinic, pediatricians educate and
advise about immunization, exercise, hygiene and diet. They may “order lab tests….explain test
results and review treatment options.” In case of serious health conditions, a pediatrician may refer
the pediatric patient to a health care specialist for further treatment. Other than seeing their patients,
pediatricians may “assign tasks to nurses and other health care workers, keep detailed records about
each patient, and write reports for insurance companies and government agencies.” Some
pediatricians also choose to teach at medical schools.
As specified by the Illinois CIS, the “median wage for pediatrician is $167, 640 per year;”
however, “self-employed pediatricians generally earn more than those who are not self-employed”
(“Pediatricians” 1). Along with wages, pediatricians also receive job benefits like “sick leave, paid
vacation, health insurance, and a retirement plan.” While in the United States, the expected growth
rate for pediatricians is 24.4%; in Illinois alone, “faster than average employment growth is expected
through the year 2020 for pediatricians” (3). The outlook for pediatricians is promising as the
demand for them is increasing with the growing population and expansion in healthcare industries.
Pediatrics has arduous education and training requirements. To work as a pediatrician, a
person needs to complete four years of medical school to get a Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree or a
Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DOM) degree (“Pediatricians” 6). After medical school, a state
licensing exam needs to be passed. In Illinois, pediatricians must be licensed by the Illinois
Department of Financial and Professional Regulation to practice (8). Once licensed, a residency
program in pediatrics needs to be completed. This usually lasts three to four years when residents
work in a hospital. In his book, Careers in Medicine, talking about pediatrics in general, Terence
Sacks declares that there are “two hundred [and] two training programs in pediatrics involving a
three-year residency” (140). During and after residency, several exams have to be taken in order to
become board certified.
After the completion of residency, pediatricians can pursue fellowships in various
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subspecialties that take another three years. Subspecialties include adolescent medicine, sports
medicine, pediatric cardiology, pediatric critical care, pediatric endocrinology etc. For example,
sports medicine only focuses on the “care of children with medical problems involving exercise and
recreational competitive sports” (Sacks 141). Just like a residency, there are various training
programs offered for each pediatric subspecialty. For example adolescent medicine has twenty-five
training programs offered, pediatric cardiology and pediatric critical care has forty-eight, pediatric
emergency medicine offers forty-three, pediatric endocrinology has sixty-two, pediatric
gastroenterology has fifty-one, while neonatal and prenatal medicine offers as many as ninety-six
training programs.
Many fields have been ignored by doctors as a possible subspecialty due to unawareness.
More pediatricians tend to focus on the common areas of specialty and tend not to explore the rare. In
the article, “The Ambulatory Pediatric Association Fellowship In Pediatric Environmental Health: A
5-Year Assessment,” the authors mention that because environmental pollution plays a big role in
pediatric disorders and other health problems, there is a need for more pediatricians to subspecialize
in environmental health. Despite of the growing diseases with environmental origin among children
like asthma, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) and neurodevelopmental disorder, only a few
pediatricians are trained in this area. Many pediatricians even report that they “frequently encounter
diseases that appear to be initiated by environmental factors, but most report discomfort and lack of
information in dealing with these conditions” (Landrigan, et al. 1384). To counter this problem, the
Ambulatory Pediatric Association (APA) launched a three year fellowship in Pediatric
Environmental Health (PEH) in various medical schools across the country. The APA fellowship
program in PEH is proving to be successful in “preparing pediatricians for leadership careers in
PEH.” Just like Environmental Health, there are many such areas that might need more doctors due
to possibly more health problems associated with them, and therefore awareness about such areas
need to be created. For example, areas like pediatric urology are also experiencing shortages and it is
highly recommended that doctors consider these areas to further their training.
Not only is education and training a must but certain skills and personal characteristics may
also play a big role in making someone a successful pediatrician. According to Illinois CIS, one of
the most important skills required by a pediatrician is communication. It is not only essential for
them to “express ideas clearly when speaking or writing,” but it is even more crucial that they are
able to “listen to [the patient], understand, and ask questions” (“Pediatricians” 4). Claiming that
listening skills are very important, Dr. Ruth Kim, a pediatrician, adds: “Lots of times the parents give
you hints and clues, but they won’t come out and say what’s really bothering them” (qtd. in
“Pediatricians” 12). For example, they might say, “I don't understand. My child is always tired and
complains of stomach aches, and won’t eat dinner.” It is the duty of the pediatrician to also look at
the young patient’s emotional health as the problem might actually be depression as “children suffer
from depression more often than you might think.” It is a task for a pediatrician to, through
conversations, spot where the problem lies.
Additional important skills that help a pediatrician are reason and problem solving. Dr. Kim
believes that in this profession “[y]ou’re like a detective” (qtd. in “Pediatricians” 11). “You have to
be thorough and look over the child, because they rarely possess the vocabulary to tell you what’s
going on.” Sometimes the cause of a problem is hidden and being a doctor you need to be vigilant
enough to find it and cure it. After a possible problem is diagnosed, it is then important for them to
“judge the costs and benefits of a possible action” through reason (“Pediatricians” 4).
Apart from skills, an ultimate personal trait for a successful career as a pediatrician is having
love and patience for children. Because this field deals with children, it is important that a
pediatrician is comfortable working with them. It is important to keep in mind that children can be
hyper active and stubborn, so as a pediatrician you should be ready to deal with them (Sacks 140).
Dr. Kim describes how she decided to specialize in pediatrics while completing her rotation in
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hospital's pediatric unit: “[I discovered] that I'm pretty good with kids, personality-wise. I'm able to
joke and play with them even when they're feeling pretty miserable. That's my favorite part of the
job, talking and interacting with the kids, and helping them feel better” (qtd. In “Pediatricians” 11).
She further adds that sometimes it may be frustrating as “you can get pooped or peed on. It can
escalate to an ugly situation if you're unable to stay level-headed. It's an endurance test” (12). At the
end, a pediatrician needs to demonstrate his/her patience towards the innocent children.
Though it seems promising, choosing pediatrics as a career has some negative consequences.
As this field requires education and training requirements in school and beyond, it may seem
exhausting. Dr. Nazjabeen Qureshi, an Attending Physician at Women & Children's Hospital of
Buffalo in New York state, mentions that this field requires lifelong learning and many people are
not ready for that. Dr. Ruth Kim, a pediatrician, also agrees that to become a doctor “you have to
buckle down and study” (qtd. in “Pediatricians”). Not only does a person striving to become a
pediatrician has to study to pass exams and enter the field but with advances in medicine, and new
diseases and treatments being introduced; even a practicing pediatrician may find himself/herself in a
never ending cycle of learning.
Not only is lifelong learning overwhelming but the work load is also considered a negative
side of this occupation. In his book, Sacks mentions that since children are more disposed to
becoming ill at any time of the day or night, a pediatrician’s working schedule is tough and irregular.
They generally have to work long hours, “averaging a 58.6-hour work-week, with about 65 percent
of that that time spent in the office, 19 percent in the hospital, and 16 percent in surgical and other
procedures” (Sacks 140). This is further testified to by Dr. Qureshi who agrees and adds that one has
to especially expect exhaustion to be an unceasing element throughout residency due to the long
working hours and extreme work load. Dr. Kim also adds, “Don’t believe everything you see on
shows like ER. Know what you are in for. There are aspects of this job that money doesn’t
compensate for. The hours are long, and there are heartaches,” she adds (qtd. in “Pediatricians”12).
The nature of the work is such that pediatricians even have to “work on weekends and nights when
on call,” leaving them with minimal leisure time (4).
Extreme workload imposed on pediatricians is also a reason why doctors experience a high
rate of burnout cases. A physician, Dr. Diane Shannon, talks about physician burnout in her article
“Why I Left Medicine: A Burnt-Out Doctor’s Decision to Quit.” In this article Dr. Shannon shares
her experience of exhaustion while practicing that finally led her to quit from the career. She
narrates:
As an internist, working in adult outpatient clinics around Boston, I had trouble
leaving my work at work. I’d go for a run and spend the entire 30 minutes wondering
if I’d ordered the right diagnostic test. I suffered from chronic early morning
wakening, even on my weekends off. I startled easily. I found it impossible to relax. I
worried constantly that I’d make a mistake, like ordering the wrong dosage of a
medication, or that a system flaw, like an abnormal lab report getting overlooked,
would harm a patient. I no longer remembered the joy I’d felt when I first began
medical school, and I couldn’t imagine surviving life as a doctor.
Long working hours, time pressure, a fast work pace and the high level of chaos have all been linked
to high rates of burnouts experienced by physicians.
Another aspect of this occupation that some people might find disturbing is cases of child
abuse. Such cases are very sensitive and dealing with the children is a challenge. Dr. Kim claims that
there are around five child abuse cases that she has to handle in a year. These cases are required to be
reported to authorities immediately, and the young victim may have to be hospitalized
(“Pediatricians”12). The children of the child abuse cases are very sensitive and a pediatrician needs
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to be extra careful in trying to help them recover from what they have faced. This may be
emotionally disturbing for pediatricians themselves. Nevertheless, the “joyous part is helping kids
recuperate and seeing them get better” (Kim qtd. in “Pediatricians”12).
Legal decision-making has also evolved into a morally controversial topic in the field of
medicine. With the “emergence of pediatric palliative care as an interdisciplinary subspecialty”
comes the question of who decides for the treatment of seriously ill, chronic or end-of-life pediatric
patients (Berlinger, Barfield and Fleischman 789). In the article, “Facing Persistent Challenges in
Pediatric Decision-Making: New Hastings Center Guidelines” by Nancy Berlinger, Raymond
Barfield and Alan R. Fleischman, published in the official journal of American Academy of
Pediatrics, Pediatrics, the authors talk about the right of the patients and their parents to be involved
while making decisions about a treatment. Since an infant or a young child might not be able to make
a decision for himself/herself, it is important that parents are fully aware of the consequences of a
treatment. An older child or an adolescent, on the other hand, might have preferences, fears or
concerns that are significant when deciding on a treatment. Sometimes doctors “save the life of a
child without sufficient regard for the profound consequences on a child’s subsequent quality of life”
(Berlinger, Barfield and Fleischman 789). For example, sometimes death might be preferable than a
long life being paralyzed. This is a decision where the pediatric patient and the caregivers should
have a say.
In order to make sure that patients make a decision in their best-interest, it is important that
they should be fully informed. In his article, “When Doctors Need to Lie,” featured in The New York
Times, Dr. Sandeep Jauhar talks about yet another moral dilemma often faced by doctors: whether to
inform a patient about their health condition or to lie, knowing the shock it can cause to the
respective patient. Dr. Jauhar claims that “the moral basis for withholding information from such a
patient is clear: Above all, physicians must do no harm” (SR.9). But is it not a harm to a patient that
his right to make an informed decision for himself is being taken away? While Berlinger, Barfield
and Fleischman talk in favor of patients making a decision for themselves, like Dr. Jauhar, they also
acknowledge the fact that a patient “might not be able to grasp all consequences of a choice” (790).
At this point a doctor might have to make the ultimate decision. Dr. Jauhar talks about his own
personal experience with a patient who received a stent to open up a blocked coronary artery. After a
few days, he started to bleed into his lungs. “He needed to be intubated with a breathing tube or he
was going to die. However, I was informed that he had told doctors that he never wanted to be
intubated,” explains Dr. Jauhar (SR.9). “I didn’t know the quality of the discussion he’d had with the
other doctors, and I couldn’t talk to him because he was nearly unconscious from lack of oxygen. So
with a troubled heart I intubated him.” Within few days, the patient’s condition improved and the
breathing tube was removed. The life of the patient was saved, but was a decision ethically and
morally right? Should doctors go against a patient’s will? Should they lie to the patient?
How different is it if the patient was a child and not an adult? These are debatable questions.
The case of a child is different and the parent's say matters. There have been many cases of parents
rejecting medical treatment due to religious beliefs. But can the parents’ decision be repealed? Courts
have been frequently seen ordering “life-saving blood transfusions for the children of Jehovah’s
Witnesses, or cancer treatment against parents’ wishes” (Hall). Yet a majority of “30 states still have
religious shield laws, and every state but Mississippi and West Virginia allows religious and/or
philosophical exemptions for school vaccination requirements.” Even The Affordable Care Act
(Obamacare) demands “insurance companies to cover ‘nonmedical’ health care such as prayers by
Christian Science practitioners.” The related laws have been changing, but it all comes down to the
interpretation of morals, ethics and priorities.
For those in the field, The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) is an American
professional association for pediatricians, founded in 1930. According to its website, AAP is “an
organization of 62,000 pediatricians committed to the optimal physical, mental, and social health and
85
well-being for all infants, children, adolescents, and young adults” (American Academy of
Pediatrics). The annual membership fee ranges from $100 to $485, according to the pediatrician’s
designation and services provided. Conveniently for medical students, the annual membership fee is
only $20. AAP has two journals, Pediatrics and Hospital Pediatrics. Pediatrics is AAP’s official
journal, which is “the most cited journal in the field, it is among the top 100 most-cited journals in all
of science and medicine.” This association also conducts a conference and exhibition annually that
can be attended by non-members. AAP helps its members find a job; become part of committees,
councils and sections dedicated to specifics issues; and advocate for patient’s health. It also
recognizes professionals who make a difference in pediatrics through AAP awards.
An interesting fact about the occupation of pediatricians is that they are not just doctors, but
advocates striving for the welfare of children. In his article, “Pediatric Advocacy: Yesterday, Today,
and Tomorrow,” Charles Oberg explains that because “children have little political voice of their
own [they have to] rely on the proxy voice of others including pediatricians to speak out on their
behalf” (406). Some examples of pediatricians serving as advocates include building safe
playgrounds with schools; starting reading programs with libraries; influencing law-making agencies
to ban lead-based paint in homes, requiring smoke detectors in apartment buildings and also
suggesting teen driving rules (American Academy of Pediatrics). AAP has also been working with
“government, communities and other national organizations to shape many child health and safety
issues.” Pediatricians are not only there to cure diseases but also to make sure that the little things
that may affect the children are resolved.
When the pediatrician looks at the young little boy; back with a bright big smile, recovered
from the bacterial infection that brought tears into his small, beautiful eyes; the world seems so much
better. That is the beauty of this field: bringing even little differences in the lives of young children
brings tranquility to the heart of a pediatrician. With a great outlook and demand, the field of
pediatrics may be the right choice for the compassionate and determined individuals out there
considering Pre-Medicine as a major.
Works Cited
American Academy of Pediatrics. American Academy of Pediatrics, 2014. Web. 3 Apr. 2014.
Berlinger, Nancy, Raymond Barfield, and Alan R. Fleischman. “Facing Persistent Challenges in
Pediatric Decision - Making: New Hastings Center Guidelines.” Pediatrics 132.5 (2013):
789-791. Academic Search Complete. Web. 4 Apr. 2014.
Hall, Harriet. “Faith Healing: Religious Freedom vs. Child Protection.” Science-Based Medicine.
Science-Based Medicine, 2013. Web. 20 Apr. 2014.
Jauhar, Sandeep. “When Doctors Need to Lie.” New York Times, Late Edition (East Coast) ed. 23
Feb. 2014: SR.9. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2014.
Landrigan, Philip J., et al. “The Ambulatory Pediatric Association Fellowship in Pediatric
Environmental Health: A 5-Year Assessment.” Environmental Health Perspectives 115.10
(2007): 1383-1387. Academic Search Complete. Web. 15 Mar. 2014.
Luecke, Percy. “The history of pediatrics at Baylor University Medical Center.” Baylor University
Medical Center Proceedings 17.1 (2004): 56-60. Pub Med--National Library of Medicine.
Web. 3 Apr. 2014.
Oberg, Charles. “Pediatric Advocacy: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow.” Pediatrics 112.2 (2003):
406-409. Academic Search Complete. Web. 4 Apr. 2014.
86
“Pediatricians.” Illinois Career Information System. U of Oregon, 2014. Web. 3 Feb. 2014.
Qureshi, Nazjabeen. Personal interview. 2 Apr. 2014.
Sacks, Terence. Careers in Medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006. Print.
Shannon, Diane. “Why I Left Medicine: A Burnt-Out Doctor’s Decision to Quit.” Common Health.
Boston University, n.d. Web. 3 Apr. 2014.
87
Physical Therapy: A Profession with a Promising Future
by Marie Labbe
(English 1102)
P
hysical Therapy is a growing medical profession, which I was drawn to especially because it
consists of working closely with and helping a variety of people while earning an above
average pay. The more I researched the profession, the more I became interested. I found that
the profession fit my personality and my qualities well, and most enticing to me is the Early
Intervention specialization with babies and children. Physical Therapy, a sophisticated science and a
highly desired field that requires extended education and training, is an important and necessary
medical profession that has evolved from various cultural practices from many generations and that
concentrates on enhancing patients’ lives by strengthening their physical capacities and overall
wellness. Physical Therapy recently became its own medical field wherein the practices come from
different cultures and times; the practitioners are highly qualified and often possess specific
personality traits. The education for Physical Therapists (PTs) has also evolved and is now very
comprehensive and involved; the specializations are varied and many studies show that the effect of
physical therapy can be greater than just improvement in physical wellness.
Physical Therapy developed over time into a more science-based practice. Bernice
Krumhansl, in her book called Opportunities in Physical Therapy Careers, claims that, in England,
toward the end of the nineteenth century, orthopedists started training young women who were
physical education (PE) graduates, to give muscular reeducation treatments to patients (10). Mark
Drnach, in his book titled The Clinical Practice of Pediatric Physical Therapy states that in 1894, in
the U.S. the first physical therapists were also women who were PE teachers but they were trained to
help with the poliomyelitis epidemic, which affects mainly babies and young children (3). Mary
McMillan, an American trained in England is known as the first American physical therapist; her
training and muscle reeducation continued to be very important during World War I, when many
soldiers were injured and impaired (Krumhansl 4). Since this type of care for the wounded did not
belong in any other medical department, the Surgeon General of the US Army Medical Corp formed,
at the beginning of World War I, a new Division of Special Hospitals and Physical Reconstruction
(4). Marguerite Sanderson started the first physical therapy course at Walter Reed Hospital, and then
14 other hospitals opened physical therapy programs all over the country (11). During World War I
these 14 schools trained 800 physical education teachers in these muscle-reeducation techniques and
were called reconstruction aides (11).
At the end of World War I these Reconstruction Aides returned to their former work because
their new work was not yet established as a specific field. On January 15, 1921, a few of the
Reconstruction Aides met in New York City and inaugurated the American Women’s Physical
Therapeutic Association and elected Mary McMillan as their president. There were 245 members. In
1921, the association started publishing a journal quarterly regarding developments in physical
therapy (Krumhansl 12). Trisha Hawkins states in her book Careers in Physical Therapy that by the
end of the 1930s there were a thousand members and men were joining the association, so they
changed its name to American Physiotherapy Association (3).
In 1925, physical therapy was recognized by the American Medical Association as a specific medical
field. The Council on Physical Therapy was established and it outlined a nine month course to be
offered in medical schools for the graduate nurses and PE graduates. Before long, “sixteen schools
were graduating 135 students a year.…The field of physical therapy was gaining momentum”
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(Krumhansl 12). There were about 1,000 physical therapists in the U.S.
In the 1940’s and 1950’s the casualties of the war and the many victims of the polio epidemic
again required the development of many more physical therapists and proved how strongly needed
they were. Army hospitals and private hospitals started offering courses in physical therapy and most
civilian schools accelerated their programs. In 1946, at the end of the war, most accelerated programs
were stopped; however, 21 schools could educate 480 PT students. The polio epidemic of the 1940’s
and 1950’s was the worst in history; there were approximately 14,500 people affected. Physical
therapists were so important in treating polio patients that “[i]n 1945 the National Foundation for
Infantile Paralysis gave the American Physiotherapy Association $1,267,000 for two thousand
scholarships to train physical therapists and other necessary personnel” (13).
In 1946 the APA became known as the American Physical Therapy Association (Drnach 4).
The 1940’s and 1950’s were important years for the development of the physical therapy field.
Trisha Hawkins explains in Careers in Physical Therapy that practitioners were highly needed during
the war and the epidemic and continued to be even after (3). Physical Therapy was finally an
independent medical field and the association kept getting stronger. Today this medical field is still
growing and developing, and the professions in physical therapy are highly sought after.
Physical therapy is relatively new as a profession but is based on various practices used over
thousands of years in different cultures. As Hawkins describes it, “Physical therapists (PTs) are the
heirs to the ancient tradition of healing by physical methods. At the same time, they are modern
health professionals—highly skilled, educated, and trained to evaluate and treat health and movement
problems that result from injury and disease, as well as disorders present at birth” (5).
Therese Harasymiw, in her book A Career as a Physical Therapist, explains that heat may be
one of the oldest modalities used by man to relieve pain. Heat helps with relaxation of muscles and
blood circulation (23). Warm towels or heat packs have been commonly used. Another heat method
used by the Greeks was fever treatment as therapy. They would cure diseases by raising the body
temperature of the patients. The Romans discovered that the application of hot wax could relieve
pain (Krumhansl 3).
Ultrasound is a modern use of heat therapy. In the beginning of World War II, German
scientists were trying to find a way to use sound waves for therapy. By the mid-1950s ultrasound was
developed and used as a physical therapy treatment. The high frequency sound waves are used to
reach through the skin to the internal body tissues to promote healing (3).
Even though it would seem that cold therapy was used as early as heat, it was not because it
could not be made without ice or snow. Russians, therefore, obviously were able to use it more
frequently. They used ice therapy to “reduce high fevers, to control infections, to treat wounds and to
treat meningitis. It was also used to treat diseases of the central nervous system” (4). Ice packs are
now most often used to reduce pain and swelling in topical areas. Cold therapy can also be referred to
as cryotherapy (Harasymiw 23).
Water therapy is similar to that of heat and cold therapy; it has also been used for generations
to relax muscles through temperature. However, hydrotherapy is uniquely used for its power to
weaken the force of gravity, which can relieve the stress on weight bearing joints and muscles. Water
therapy is used to “stimulate the immune system, slow down the production of stress hormones,
invigorate blood circulation and digestion and lessen inflammation” (Krumhansl 5-6).
Electrotherapy was also used in ancient times. In Rome, electric eels were used for arthritis
treatment (Harasymiw 23). There are now many uses for electric currents including pain control
reducing muscle atrophy and accelerating healing by drawing blood to the tissue (25).
Massage and exercise are the most commonly used treatments in physical therapy and have
been used to improve health in many ways. Massage and exercise are an innate human response to
pain. People naturally try to bend their bodies or rub and massage muscles to relieve pain. Massage
and exercise can also be used to treat illnesses. The first to help with the recovery of fractures,
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dislocation or other injuries were ancient Greek gymnasts. The realization of the benefits of exercise
came in the 17th century in England and the understanding of the relation between massage, blood
circulation and general health came in the 18th century in France and Germany (Krumhansl 8). Most
therapeutic exercises used today to promote health come from Pehr Henry Ling of Sweden, who
showed that properly done exercise could heal diseases and body dysfunctions. He was the founder
of the first institute for medical and orthopedic gymnastics. The Swedish system introduced two
types of exercise, resistive exercises and isometric exercises. They are muscle-building exercises that
consist of squeezing against resistance without movement (9). The effectiveness of massage,
acupuncture and acupressure are subject to controversies because they are based on the theory that
“[t]he central nervous system and the circulatory system connect internal organs to the skin and all
points in between. Pressure applied to certain points in the body will result in electrical messages or
bodily fluids carried to other part” (10).
The work of a physical therapist often consists of introducing the patient to exercises and
teaching them how to perform them properly. There are different types of exercises depending on the
ability of the patient to move. Some patients might not be able to move at all, while some have very
little strength and others just need to strengthen a little bit. Some exercises are meant for patients to
do on their own and others are meant for the therapists to perform on patients with little to no help
from them. If patients are able to do exercises on their own, physical therapists can request that they
perform the exercises on their own at home and teach them how to properly do so (Harasymiw 19).
Physical therapists can work in many different settings; they can work in hospitals, in
rehabilitation centers, in outpatient clinics, in private practices, in home health agencies, in schools,
in nursing homes, and even in emergency rooms. Physical therapists work in general about 40 hours
a week but the hours can widely vary from one therapist to another. Katie Guimon, a physical
therapist at Cadence Health Hospital in Winfield, Illinois, works about ten hours a day and four days
a week, which is the average 40 hours a week. Michele Neidlinger, a physical therapist in early
intervention whom I interviewed, works about ten to twenty hours a week as an independent
contractor and two 10-hour days a month at the hospital.
The pay for a physical therapist varies from the setting they work in, the state, and seniority.
In the United States a physical therapist earns on average $38.39 an hour and $79,860 a year (United
States. Dept. of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics). In Illinois the average pay of a physical therapist
is slightly lower, $36.87 an hour and $76,700 a year (“Summary Report”). Benefits vary depending
on the setting that physical therapists work in. Neidlinger, for example, receives health insurance,
money for continuing education, and a 401K from working at the hospital, but doesn’t receive any
benefits as an independent contractor.
Physical therapists are highly educated. To be a qualified physical therapist, one must earn a
Master’s or a Doctoral degree in Physical Therapy and successfully pass the national exam called the
National Physical Therapy Exam (NPTE). The programs vary depending on the school but the
classes required before entering the program often include “psychology, biology, physics, chemistry,
statistics, English, professional writing, and humanities. After you are accepted in the program the
courses will become more focused on the physical therapy practice” (“Become a PhysicalTherapist”).
Neidlinger became a physical therapist with only a Master’s degree but she has been practicing for
fourteen years. Now it is getting harder to become a physical therapist with only a Master’s Degree
and by 2017 that won’t be possible anymore. All physical therapy students will then be required to
get a Doctoral Degree in order to become physical therapists (American Physical Therapy
Association).
The American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) is the national association of physical
therapy; it includes 88,000 members including practicing and non-practicing physical therapists,
physical therapy assistants (PTAs), and physical therapy students. The association holds three
national conferences a year, publishes a journal every month called the American Physical Therapy
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Journal and regularly updates its website www.apta.org. According to Neidlinger, she is no longer an
APTA member. She explained that “[t]he fees were high; about 200 dollars a year, and although it
was really helpful for [her] research at school, it wasn’t that helpful after and [she] didn’t have time
to read the journals.”
Physical therapy has a bright outlook; it’s a growing field. As most professions in medical
fields, physical therapy ensures a job security because even during recession medical bills are one of
the last ones that can be eliminated. The baby boom generation is getting older and is more and more
often in need physical therapy treatments (United States. Dept. of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics).
Camden Flath, in Therapy Jobs in Educational Settings: Speech, Physical, Occupational, &
Audiology, claims that the need for physical therapists is growing in schools too (54). However, the
fact that the field is growing and new advancements are regularly made means that physical
therapists have to keep learning as they practice. Neidlinger explained that PTs have to take 40 hours
of class and pass a test every two years. An article by Jeffrey W. Hathaway on
PhysicalTherapist.com cautions about the fact that even though the future looks good the issue of
reimbursements can be a problem. Health insurance doesn’t always cover all the recommended
treatments and patients aren’t always capable of paying themselves. Some patients don’t receive all
the necessary treatments because of that.
Like other medical fields, there are specializations in physical therapy. Many physical
therapists work in a special area of the field, but not many are certified in their specialization.
Neidlinger states that “[she is] specialized in pediatrics but [is] not certified because it takes a lot of
time and more education. The board exam is supposedly very hard and very specific. You really have
to be an expert in your specialization to pass that exam.” PTs may specialize in orthopedic medicine,
sports medicine, neurology, cardiopulmonary medicine, electrophysiology, pediatric medicine,
geriatric medicine, or women’s health (Harasymiw 11-17). “Physical therapists who choose to
specialize are prepared to treat patients within that area of medicine,” notes Harasymiw (11). “They
study more about certain parts and functions of the body as well as specific disorders, disabilities,
and diseases” (11).
The job of physical therapists is to evaluate their patients, find the most appropriate treatment
therapy, conduct the therapy and evaluate the progress of the patients. Hawkins explains that to
evaluate a patient, a physical therapist has to take the medical and personal history of the patient,
evaluate his strength, evaluate his range of motion (ROM), evaluate the patient’s pain, evaluate the
patient’s functions and evaluate other factors, such as posture, skin condition, respiratory system,
heart-beat, brain and nervous system function and senses. The process of evaluation is very important
because there isn’t always a previous diagnosis and the patient might have many layered problems
causing chronic pain and loss of function. The Physical Therapist’s evaluation skills are very
important to understanding the source of the problem and consequently for the appropriate treatment
therapy (27-29).
After the evaluation, a PT needs to choose the appropriate treatment. The most commonly
used method of treatment is the therapeutic exercise. PTs, however, also use manual and massage
therapies to manage their patient’s pain, increase their range of motion, reduce their inflammation, or
induce relaxation. Physical therapists can also use other therapies such as pulmonary therapy,
hydrotherapy, cryotherapy, heat therapy, electrotherapy, as well as other complementary therapies
(41-43). PT’s can help patients choose appropriate assistive devices and teach them how to use them.
The PTs also teach patients with prostheses and orthotics to walk again or use their limbs properly in
their new condition (43). “Each patient is evaluated as an individual and each treatment plan is
unique,” explains Hawkins (44). Physical therapists apply treatment therapies, adapt them to their
patients and modify them to their individual needs. Physical therapists also continually monitor their
patients’ progress and adjust treatment plans as necessary until the desired goal is reached.
Physical therapists are service providers. Krumhansl believes that they must be open to a
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wide variety of people: “They need to interact with people from a range of cultures and with varying
levels of education and socioeconomic statuses” (24). Two important qualities for a PT are empathy
and compassion. Physical therapists need to gain the trust of their patient to get them to cooperate
with the treatment. By showing that they genuinely understand and care about their pain and that they
want to help, the patients are more likely to react positively to the treatment therapy. Hawkins
illustrates this point with the words of a physical therapist: “‘You have to be able to make therapy
fun, and be very much a caring person. You’ve got to be a person who really wants to know people
and learn what is most important to them… it’s very much a relationship’” (Margaret Plack qtd. in
Hawkins 25). Krumhansl observes that physical therapists have to be thoughtful and sensitive:
Tact is an important personality trait for physical therapists to possess. People who
are ill and in pain must be dealt with carefully and sensitively. Patients are living
individuals who, when you encounter them, will be in a physical and emotional crisis.
This will mean they may be resistant to treatment and may have difficulty
understanding the need for particularly painful forms of treatment. A PT must be able
to inspire confidence in them and build a solid working framework with them and
their families to provide them with and have them accept the highest-quality care.
(26)
Emotional stability is also crucial for a PT since there is so much going on simultaneously and quick
clear-headed decisions are often necessary. There are also often interruptions from other medical
personnel and multiple patients to work with as well, so there is a need to be able to multi-task
(Krumhansl 25). Physical therapy can be a strenuous work; PTs need to be in good physical shape
themselves. Harasymiw points out: “[T]hey bend, crouch, lift, stand, swim, pull, push, walk, run, and
support” (27).
I have always been very interested in working with children and was delighted to find out
that pediatrics was an important section of physical therapy. Neidlinger works in early intervention
and reported that she didn’t need the certification of specialization to do so. She works with 0 to 3
year old children at their homes, which sounds very enticing to me, and is able to find enough
patients within a 5-mile radius. My interest in early intervention brought me to an article written by
Michele A. Lobo et al. titled “Grounding Early Intervention: Physical Therapy Cannot Just Be About
Motor Skills Anymore.” This article discussed the fact that physical therapy impacts more than the
physical wellness of children; it also has a big impact on their future cognitive, language and social
development (95). The idea of the article is that muscle and brain are almost always used together
and that strengthening the connection between the two can lead to a long term improvement in
capacities in all domains. The article gave the example of school work, which can seem to be more of
a mental activity but the article explains that physical activities are very often involved in it. Writing,
for example, uses the brain and the muscles of the hand; talking uses the brain and all the mouth
muscles. The habit of using the brain and the muscles simultaneously becomes easier and more
natural over time, but physical therapy at an early age can help make the connection stronger and,
therefore, improve the chances of having good learning capacities and lessen the chances of having
learning disabilities. “[T]he research strongly suggests that early object interaction, sitting, and
locomotor behaviors are important vehicles for promoting future cognitive, perceptual-motor,
language, and social-emotional development,” explains the article (98). Understanding the deep
improvement that can be done through physical therapy reinforces my desire to become a physical
therapist. Furthermore, because I am very interested in working with babies and young children, I
was very interested in the important impact of physical therapy on the development of young
children.
Physical therapy is a profession with many opportunities. The job offers great variety and
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involves working with many different people, patients and other medical and professional staff.
Physical therapists can experience many feelings every day: “demanding, rewarding, draining,
inspiring….Perhaps it is that variety that draws many physical therapists to their work” (Harasymiw
51). Many surveys have shown that physical therapists are some of the most satisfied with their job.
For example, Harasymiw reports that, in a survey for U.S News and World Report, “[M]ore than
three-quarters said they were ‘very satisfied’” with their profession (51). Neidlinger confirmed being
very satisfied herself with her career as a PT. Physical therapy is a medical profession that is growing
much faster than average. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, “[E]mployment of physical
therapists is projected to grow 36% from 2012 to 2022.” This career is projected to be one of the
most recession-proof fields because health is less often affected by recession. The educational
requirements are extensive but lead to excellent job security and satisfaction. Most of all, the help
one can bring to others as a PT can be very rewarding.
Works Cited
American Physical Therapy Association. American Physical Therapy Association, 2014. Web. 3
Mar. 2014.
“Become A Physical Therapist.” PhysicalTherapist.com. PhysicalTherapist.com, 2014. Web. 10 Apr.
2014.
Drnach, Mark. The Clinical Practice of Pediatrics Physical Therapy. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins, 2008. Print.
Flath, Camden. Therapy Jobs in Educational Settings: Speech, Physical, Occupational, & Audiology.
Broomall: Mason Crest Publishers Inc., 2011. Print.
Guimon, Katie. Personal interview. 1 Mar. 2014.
Hathaway, Jeffrey W. “The Future of PT – Will it be all it should be?” PhysicalTherapist.com.
PhysicalTherapist.com, 2014. Web. 17 Apr. 2014.
Harasymiw, Therese. A Career as a Physical Therapist. New York: Rosen, 2011. Print.
Hawkins, Trisha. Careers in Physical Therapy. New York: Rosen, 2001. Print.
Krumhansl, Bernice. Opportunities in Physical Therapy Careers. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006.
Print.
Lobo, Michele A. et al. “Grounding Early Intervention: Physical Therapy Cannot Just Be About
Motor Skills Anymore.” Physical Therapy 93.1 (2013): 94-103. Academic Search Complete.
Web. 17 Mar. 2014.
Neidlinger, Michele. Personal interview. 7 Apr. 2014.
“Summary Report for: 29-1123.00-Physical Therapists.” O*NET OnLine. National Center for
O*NET Development, 2013. Web. 8 Mar. 2014.
United States. Dept. of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Physical Therapists.” Occupational
Outlook Handbook. 2014-2015 Edition, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 8 Jan 2014. Web. 2
Mar. 2014.
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Term Limits in the United States
by Amanda Manton
(Honors English 1102)
I
n recent years, term limits for the state and federal government, such as the United States
Congress and state legislatures, have been an issue discussed and contemplated about in the
United States. Mostly, the Republican Party pushes for term limits to correct issues involving the
processes of government while the Democratic Party opposes term limits because they view them as
ineffective to solve problems in the government. The only way that there will ever be term limits for
the U.S. Congress is if an amendment is passed, such as the 22nd amendment that limits the president
to two terms; for an amendment to be passed, both parts of Congress need to a have two-thirds
majority vote and three-fourths of the states need to ratify the amendment (Maddock). Although
amendments are possible to pass, it takes a great deal of effort and cooperation among political
officials to pass.
According to Preston Maddock from The Huffington Post, in April 2013, Arizona Republican
Representative Matt Salmon proposed a bill named Joint Resolution 41, which would limit House of
Representatives to three terms and Senators to two terms. This would ensure that the politicians are
more aware of their constituents’ environment. This shows that term limits are still relevant today
and is not just a new idea. On the other hand, there have been Congress members that have been
adamant against term limits for politicians, from local levels all the way up to the President. For
instance, ever since 1997, New York Democratic Representative Jose Serrano has tried to repeal the
22nd amendment, but all of his attempts have died before reaching a vote in the House of
Representatives. Regardless, both sides of the debate want to improve the government but, use term
limits for different justifications.
Reasons Supporting Term Limits
The proponents of term limits often try to look back at history to defend their push for term
limits. For instance, many, such as Jed Babbin from the political journal, American Spectator, state
that the Founding Fathers supported term limits and shaped the foundation of our government to
favor term limits because none of them were politicians for their whole careers (30). The Founding
Fathers also specifically stated that the government needed a constant “‘rotation of office,’” so that
the politicians would not be a permanent fixture in one area of government and could move to other
areas of government if they wanted to continue in politics (“Arguments”). The cycling of politicians
in a certain office benefits that position by getting a different point of view from the next official.
This helps other areas of government too because they will gain the experience and knowledge of the
former officials if they win a different position in one of the other areas of government. Proponents
of term limits use the Founding Fathers as an example because they believe that the country should
value the tradition and legacy they set for the government.
Supporters of term limits also state that term limits will limit the amount of corruption in
politics. According to Restart Congress, a political movement that advocates for term limits, they
will weaken the influence of lobbyists and special interest groups because Congress members “will
have less time to develop financially beneficial commitments” (“Arguments”). This will limit
corruption because the politicians will be forced to make decisions based on what is best for their
constituents instead of trying to line their pockets with money to finance their next election.
Additionally, term limits will cause Congress committee members to be chosen based on merit rather
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than be based on “political favors” and a greed for power in Congress and seniority (“Arguments”).
The reason that the members will be based on merit is because there will be less career politicians, so
each member of Congress has more equal seniority and weaker political alliances.
Similarly, much of the corruption in Congress is due to the career politicians. According to
Babbin, the more time a person stays in office, the more likely they will become corrupted because
their experience brings a sense of power and seniority (30). Also, with that, the more likely the
members will try to use their position to gain favors and bribes from lobbyists and groups that want
to speak with them (Babbin 28). The members believe that they can use their position because those
groups want to have some influence on the lawmaking process by meeting with them. The members
figure that the groups will be more willing to take unethical measures, such as bribes, to promote
their agenda. The corruptive power of staying in office can be seen in how the Republican Party’s
viewpoint on term limits shifts in 1997. Previously, the Democratic Party had control of Congress,
so the Republicans supported term limits more strongly, but when they won control in 1997, their
support for term limits diminished because they wanted to stay in office as long as they could
(Babbin 30). Their change in opinion symbolizes that the power associated with a position in
Congress corrupts the politicians because they become greedy and used to their new power and do
not want to give it up. Overall, the supporters of term limits view it as a limit of corruption by being
an automatic barrier to the corrupting forces political power has on people.
Although elections are part of our government to prevent low quality politicians from
keeping power, it is extremely difficult to defeat incumbents. For instance, on average, incumbents
win about 90% of their re-elections (“Arguments”). That rate is high when a person considers that
many people seem fed up with the government and the performance of Congress. One reason for the
high re-election rate is that some voters are not well-educated about the candidates before voting, so
they just vote for whoever’s name they recognize on the ballot or whoever is part of the voters’
preferred political party (“Arguments”). The incumbents also have an advantage over challengers
because they are able to raise more funds for campaigns. They develop financial relationships with
special interest groups that want to have influence in politics (Blumel qtd. in Keck). In the 2010
Congressional elections, the average campaign funding for the House members was about $1.4
million and for Senators it was about $9.4 million while challengers had on average $166,000 and
$519,000 respectively (“Arguments”). This high discrepancy shows that the politicians need to be
limited, so they have less time to gain money from special interest groups. Elections also will be
more effective because both candidates will have similar finances to spend on advertising. The more
advertising a candidate has, the more easily they will be elected because the public will see their
name and faces more. The need for term limits is great, so elections will be competitive and force
candidates to focus on the issues instead of trying to buy their way into office.
Reasons Opposing Term Limits
Although in polls, Congressional term limits are popular among voters, they still are not the
solution to fixing our political system. According to College of DuPage American Politics professor
David Goldberg, term limits are popular because they are a “catchy idea …a quick fix, and
something to shake [the government] up” to correct the problems in Congress. Term limits, in fact,
will make the current situation worse. They will weaken the power of the legislative branch and shift
power to the executive branch, according to studies collected by the National Conference of State
Legislatures (Bowser qtd. in Keck). The shift in power is due to the president retaining office while
Congress gains new members, which will change the voting dynamic in Congress and give more
power to the president, who will not have to deal with any changes in his branch of government.
Although, due to elections, some Congress member would be replaced, term limits will cause more
members to lose their seats than normal. Additionally, term limits would limit the quality of
Congress’ decisions because it takes time for the new members to learn how to do their job well,
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especially when it comes to building relationships with other members (Goldberg). Those
relationships allow Congress to work together and form bills that the majority of them can agree on,
so they can pass laws. Additionally, the more time a person has in Congress, the more knowledge
they will gain in certain areas, so they can be experts on issues and have useful information for
projects and committees (Keck). Therefore, term limits would hinder the quality of Congressional
decisions because the members with expertise in areas will be lost when their time is over. Without
expertise, Congress memebers will make uneducated decisions or will waste more time training the
new members about the information the old ones learned before voting. Instead of improving
Congress, term limits would worsen Congress’ ability to serve their voters well.
In fact, representatives, who have taken pledges to self-limit their terms have regretted their
pledge, such as Illinois Representative Timothy Johnson, because he “‘underestimated the value of
seniority’” (Bloomer qtd in Stone 5A). Like any other job, the more time a person has in it, the better
they are able to do his/her job. The officials also gain power that help them benefit their constituents
when they hold office for longer periods of times; the added time allows them to gain more money
for their districts and be part of committees that can benefit their district (Stone 5A). In short, the
power associated with a position in Congress can be also positive to do good for their voters, rather
than just leading to corruption. Although 67% of the voters supported term limits, there really has
not been a negative consequence for those officials that went back on their pledges. For example,
Representative George Nethercutt promised to only have three terms, but he ran for a fourth term in
2000 and won (5A). This symbolizes that even though voters support term limits, when they have
the choice, they will not look at how many term limits a candidate has served to determine if they
should be re-elected or not.
Figure 1
Proportion of Congressman Who Are Former State Legislators in the 15 TermLimited States (National Conference of State Legislatures).
People in opposition of term limits see that the public support them because they think there
is a problem with the system, so politicians must fix the underlying issues to truly correct the
problems. Supporters of term limits say they will limit career politicians. However, there will still be
career politicians because they will have the chance to run for other offices still. Figure one shows
the high rate of state legislators with term limits switching to Congress, so term limits do not really
resolve the issue of career politicians (Kurtz 9). Additionally, the U.S. already has elections to get rid
of bad officials, so there is no need for term limits; to help curb corruption, voters need to be better
96
educated and attentive (Goldberg). Term limits are ineffective at solving the issues they are
supposed to solve because they do not deal with the root of the problems.
Recent Candidate Opinion
In the upcoming election, Illinois governor primary candidate Bruce Rauner openly supports
term limits to help change the workings of government in Illinois; however, he does not offer any indepth information about how he will do it or how they will help. According to Professor Goldberg,
Rauner is popular because he has a message that is popular among voters. He is consistent about his
message but does not go into depth in the media about his term limit policy. If he wins the primary,
he will probably give more details of the logistics of his term limit policy.
Overview
Congressional term limits are not a new idea in the United States, but they still carry a lot of
support among voters. Supporters focus on the Founding Fathers as an example of what the
government should be. Also, term limits will limit the corruption and career politicians, who are
disconnected, in Congress. On the other side, opponents cite the regret of the representatives that
took a term-limit pledge to show that term limits are not practical. Congress members need to build
experience and knowledge about the lawmaking process in order to build relationships with other
members and groups to enact new laws. The debate of term limits will probably continue for decades
to come, but right now it seems unlikely that they will be enacted in the near future.
Works Cited
“Arguments for Term Limits.” Restart Congress. Restart Congress, 2012. Web. 1 Feb. 2014.
Babbin, Jed. “Ill Winds Over Washington.” American Spectator 39.2 (2006): 26-30. Academic
Search Complete. Web. 1 Feb. 2014.
Goldberg, David. Personal interview. 28 Feb. 2014.
Kreck, Kirsti. “Anti-Incumbent Mood Fuels Term Limit Debate.” CNN. Cable News Network, 19
July 2010. Web. 25 Jan. 2014.
Kurtz, Karl. “An Unexpected Term Limit Effect.” State Legislatures 39.3 (2013): 9. Academic
Search Complete. Web. 1 Feb. 2014.
Maddock, Preston. “Congressional Term Limit Bill Introduced by House Lawmakers.” The
Huffington Post. The Huffington Post.com, 24 Apr. 2013. Web. 25 Jan. 2014.
Stone, Andrea. “Term-Limit Pledges Get Left Behind.” USA Today 13 Apr. 2006: 5A. Academic
Search Complete. Web. 1 Feb. 2014.
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Is there an Animal Consciousness?
A Phenomenological Approach
by Matt Mazur
(Philosophy 1800)
Abstract
he notion of consciousness, animal or otherwise, has been often discussed throughout the
history of human thought. More recently it has become a topic for debate in philosophy with
many competing ideas emerging. This paper is an attempt to discuss the nature of animal
consciousness using a phenomenological approach. Phenomenology is a branch of philosophy with
the goal of discovering and describing the true nature of phenomena beyond the human subjective
experience of them. Using the French philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s work on perception,
this paper argues for the acceptance of a form of consciousness in many animals while also seeking a
better understanding of animal consciousness from a phenomenological approach. The paper
concludes by discussing aspects that the phenomenological approach can add to our limited
perspective of animal consciousness.
T
Introduction
It’s rather easy to consider oneself conscious, the next step up is to consider other human
beings, and finally considering the consciousness of other species entirely. Human consciousness
has a rich history in philosophy and with the arrival of the scientific discipline of psychology, science
as well. The idea of non-human consciousness however has a smaller place in history. Animal
consciousness has had a back seat in science and philosophy for quite some time and until recently it
wasn’t really considered. The rise of various animal rights movements has brought the idea of
animal consciousness to the forefront of many issues in areas such as ethical concerns, ecology and
wildlife management. In this paper, I will argue for an interpretation of the consciousness of animals
based off of the philosophy of Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961) and integrating this theoretical
approach with the recent work undertaken by the contemporary philosopher David Morris as well as
recent scientific developments. In Part I, I will give a brief history of the philosophical groundwork
for animal consciousness and scientific debate surrounding the consciousness of animals. In Part II, I
will lay out the philosophy of Merleau-Ponty and Morris involving consciousness and perception
before finally making my argument for the consciousness of other animals in Part III.
I
First I will begin with an overview of a few of the more important voices in the history of
philosophy concerning animal consciousness. As is fitting for a discussion concerning a history
involving philosophy and science it is best to go back to one of the first great natural philosophers,
before the term scientist had even been invented. Aristotle (384-322BC) spoke on a wide range of
topics from ethics to politics and was also one of the first to catalog, categorize, and discuss animals
in a somewhat scientific way. In On the Soul Aristotle allows for a small portion of animals to have
thinking abilities and all animals to be capable of perceiving and “sense imagination” (434). All
animals are endowed with perceptive sensations to survive but very few are given mental powers of
calculation or “deliberative imagination” (434). In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle argues that
anything done under ignorance or compulsion is involuntary with an awareness of the “particular
circumstances” of the action (1111). From that argument he goes on to allow animals at least the
willingness of their actions arguing “For things done on account of spiritedness or desire are
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probably not rightly called unwilling acts. In the first place, none of the other animals would any
longer do anything willingly” (1111). Aristotle had perhaps a better outlook on animal thought and
will than what followed him in the Cartesian Revolution.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) exerted extreme influence on western philosophy and many
movements in philosophy can be traced back to him. While he may have made many great strides in
terms of understanding consciousness with the personal “I,” his position on animal thought was bleak
when seen today under a more comprehensive perspective. In the Cartesian system our physical
bodies are essentially machines to house the consciousness. There is a duality between mind and
body. Under this system of thought animals are reduced to mindless automata that merely react to
stimuli. His argument for this is contained in Part V of the Discourse on Methods, in which he
claims that because all animals possess the same organs as humans (brains, vocal chords, etc.) but do
not communicate with language they must be lacking in some faculty. They have the organs to
communicate but instead do not and therefore must be just automata because even the most stupid of
humans can at least communicate basic thoughts. Since the animal has the organs needed but doesn’t
communicate thoughts it must be that they have no thoughts to communicate. The argument follows
that because the actions and behaviors of animals can be imitated or described in a machine like
fashion, they must be analogous to machines and therefore unconscious. This line of thinking has
had a drastic impact on the concept of animal consciousness.
The Cartesian formulation of the world ushered in a new wave of thought. The world could
now be understood by the use of human reason and rationality alone. Everything was open to
understanding through the laws of physics and mathematics and rationality. Knowledge could be
found in human rational thought alone and so all the world could be explained and understood. The
dualism of Descartes creates a void of meaning for the material objects. Material objects could be
described with mathematical formulations and so lacked any true meaning. This also applied to the
body, which was seen as a mechanical thing with a separate substance of mind driving it around. In
relation to animals they were seen as just a mechanical body, without the mind substance and
therefore were just unconscious robots. This of course is not the end of the debate as others have
argued differently since then.
David Hume (1711-1776) presented another account for the consciousness of animals in A
Treatise of Human Nature. Hume lays out an argument for animal thought and behavior saying “no
truth appears to be more evident, than that beast are endow’d with thought and reason as well as
men” (176). Hume’s argument is one of analogy in which he says that animals preform many of the
same behaviors as humans and we cannot just assume them unconscious because we want to.
According to Hume, the mind is a blank slate upon which sense perceptions are the only data to
enhance it. The sense data we receive shapes the mind and experiences and molds consciousness. In
this way, animals would also receive sense data and experiences which would shape their thoughts
and behaviors much in the same that humans’ experiences would also do.
The modern philosophical debate has exploded with various arguments for different levels of
consciousness or states, along with much debate. Robert Lurz has summarized the debate in
contemporary philosophy as the contrast between various higher order theories of consciousness and
basic creature consciousness, or simple perceptual awareness (5). Michael Antony points out that the
current state of writing is saturated with what he labels as different “kinds” of consciousness,
different “concepts” as well as different “meanings” that often get thrown around indiscriminately
(1). This can cause issues when trying to broach the subject if many people are talking about the
same thing using different vernacular. Some modern philosophers, such as Peter Carruthers, argue
for the higher order theories which deny “phenomenal” consciousness to animals. Lurz, on the other
hand, has fiercely critiqued Carruthers and the higher order theories of consciousness (151). Another
philosopher Thomas Nagel, coming out of the analytic tradition, argued that we can never move
beyond our human subjective point of view to really know the consciousness of another organism
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because we can only know that “no matter how the form may vary, the fact that an organism has
conscious experience at all means, basically, that there is something it is like to be that organism”
(303). The modern debate seems to go back and forth with no clear answer either way although one
notion that has arisen from the consciousness debate is that consciousness is directed. This means
that one cannot be conscious of nothing at all, there is always some “thing” to be conscious of. The
scientific side of the debate takes its own variation which is different from the philosophical one.
The scientific debate of consciousness arose with the advent of modern psychology.
Psychology, the study of the mind, has had a fruitful yield in the modern era. There has been a lot of
good work on the study of human consciousness but this paper is concerned with the notion of an
animal consciousness and so that is where the focus shall be. Donald Griffin (1915-2003), the
former animal zoologist and Harvard graduate, does an excellent summary of the debate in his book
Animal Minds, pointing out that the study of animal consciousness has been largely influenced by the
behaviorist movement of the early 20th century. Griffin lays out 3 main points of the movement as
follows:
Claim 1 is that learning and other factors of an animal’s lifetime account for almost
all the behavior of said animal beyond its physical adaptations.
Claim 2 is that we can only consider outside influences and observed behavior to
account for explanations of animal behavior.
Claim 3 is that subjective thinking should be ignored for 2 reasons
1- They are subjective experiences that cannot be quantified nor verified
2- They are just byproducts of brain activity and do not influence behavior (2021)
Griffin does go on to state that claim 1 has been largely abandoned by most scientists and
that claim 2 has been heavily modified due largely to the “cognitive revolution” which argues for
various cognitive states in psychology (21). Griffin also claims that it is obvious animals process
information within their nervous systems but what is not clear is if there is any conscious awareness
of this fact (22). Since many processes within human beings also occur at an unconscious level, the
assumption is that none of the animals’ information processing is conscious. The crux of what
Griffin points out is that there are many in the scientific community who are hostile to the idea of
animal consciousness under the basis that it is hard to identify or measure quantitatively and
therefore should not be talked about in a scientific sense. Yet there is more to the story than just the
behaviorist perspective.
Many studies have been done on the consciousness of animal by scientists. The field of
cognitive ethology, which has the goal of understanding animal behavior empirically with detracting
from the ability to make predictions with utility and also including the possibility of internal states of
cognition , is also an area of interest within the scientific community (Kamil 21-23). In 2012 a
document entitled the “Cambridge Declaration of Consciousness” was signed during the Francis
Crick Memorial Conference. This document is a statement about animal cognition which goes on to
say that numerous animals possess the same neurochemical and physical properties in which to
experience states of consciousness. The scientists’ analysis states that there are numerous brain
systems that are homologous within humans and some animals that react similarly with regard to
microcircuitry of the brain. Based on these findings the group of scientists that signed the document
concluded:
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The absence of a neocortex does not appear to preclude an organism from
experiencing affective states. Convergent evidence indicates that non-human animals
have the neuroanatomical, neurochemical, and neurophysiological substrates of
conscious states along with the capacity to exhibit intentional behaviors.
Consequently, the weight of evidence indicates that humans are not unique in
possessing the neurological substrates that generate consciousness. Nonhuman
animals, including all mammals and birds, and many other creatures, including
octopuses, also possess these neurological substrates. (Low)
This statement is of course not the end of the debate surrounding animal consciousness in either the
scientific field or the philosophical one.
II
I will be drawing on the philosophy of Maurice Merleau-Ponty as well as the philosopher
David Morris for my argument on the consciousness of animals. Merleau-Ponty was a
phenomenologist with his major work being The Phenomenology of Perception. Phenomenology is
the study of phenomena in themselves. Modern phenomenology is based on the work of Edmund
Husserl (1859-1938), and can be described as an attempt to get to the heart of what a phenomenon
truly is beyond a subjective experience or description of that thing. Husserl described this as the
epoché, the first step in the phenomenological reduction in which we bracket or refrain from judging
our thoughts about the existence of the world while also not taking them for granted. In this way the
phenomenological method seeks to strip away the subjectivity and allow the phenomena to present
themselves in a true manner.
Merleau-Ponty argues against Husserl in this regard saying that in order to use the
phenomenological method we must comprehend the notion that we cannot be fully separate from the
world. There is no way that we may become a passive, objective observer of a phenomenon because
“I cannot conceive myself as nothing but a bit of the world, a mere object of biological,
psychological or sociological investigation”(ix). In our bodies we are trapped within the world and
cannot step completely outside of it to try and investigate it. Furthermore, Merleau-Ponty argues that
we cannot resort to only empirical methods in order to describe things because “[a]ll my knowledge
of the world, even my scientific knowledge, is gained from my own particular point of view, or from
some experience of the world without which the symbols of science would be meaningless” and “we
must begin by reawaking the basic experience of the world of which science is the second-order
expression” (PP ix). The empirical methods of science can be seen as a “second-order expression”
because all the knowledge described by science is a description from a human subjective view point.
To further clarify let us consider an example such as the color blue. When I see the color
blue, I experience it myself from my subjective viewpoint. Now with a photospectrometer we can
describe blue as being a wavelength of light at a certain frequency, acting in accordance with
mathematical principles. That description though, is second-order because those attributes or
mathematical derivations themselves are expressions from a human standpoint in an attempt to
describe how we perceive blue objectively, and yet they cannot truly be objective since there is no
way to step outside the human body and verify them from some other position. This subjectivity
does not mean that those attempted objective descriptions themselves are not useful or should be
disregarded, only that we must be aware that they are still a subjective description from the human
perspective.
Since we are forced into a subjective view of things by our very nature of being in the world
there is of course a conundrum, namely that we are unable to step outside ourselves and get an
objective third person perspective of experience, yet neither can we only rely on an empirical method
such as science because it too is contained in the sphere of human subjectivity. In order to examine
this issue Merleau-Ponty turns to perspective itself, as the primary lens in which we communicate
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with the world. First and foremost, we are perceivers of things before anything else. At every
moment we are surrounded and bombarded by perceptions from all angles via touch, sight, sound,
etc. These perceptions are our first contact with the world, and so in order to properly try to
understand the world we must first understand perception itself.
In order to understand perception it becomes necessary to talk of the human body, the thing
through which we perceive in the first place. Merleau-Ponty argues that the body is rooted in the
world and as such “the permanence of one’s own body, if only classical psychology had analyzed it,
might have led it to the body no longer conceived as an object of the world, but as our means of
communication with it” (106). Seen this way the body is not an object of experience, for that would
mean I could step outside and examine it, but rather the body is the subject of experience. I am my
body and my body is me, I do not experience my body but rather my body experiences the world
through my perception. In this way being is rooted in a body in the world. Consequently,
consciousness cannot just be some metaphysical thing as Descartes would argue, but instead must be
rooted within the body as well.
Now if the body is the subject of perception the question arises of what consciousness is.
Previously I discussed that consciousness is directional, which is to say that one must always be
conscious of something. Seen this way, consciousness is a kind of awareness of things, or more
properly an awareness of the perceptions we are having at that time. Merleau-Ponty argues in The
Phenomenology of Perception that “[t]o be a consciousness or rather to be an experience is to hold
inner communication with the world, the body and other people, to be with them instead of being
beside them” (111). I argue that consciousness is an awareness of the perceptions we are having
from the world at any moment on the subject that is our body. Using Merleau-Ponty’s definition,
being aware of our perceptions allows us to “be and experience” those perceptions. The extent of
this awareness may change depending on the situation. For instance I may be so enthralled in a
painting that I am not aware of the things around that painting consciously but I am still receiving the
perceptions of those things. Those perceptions I am aware of I can say I am conscious of. Once we
are aware of the perceptions of the world the question is how to make sense of them and attribute
meaning to them. This is how the color blue becomes the color blue, or the distance between me and
a chair becomes that distance by the attribution of meaning to the perceptions.
It is here that I will rely on the work of David Morris to further clarify my position. In order
to talk about meaning I will refer to the description of Morris in which he argues that we should
“draw on Merleau-Ponty, who discovers that human meaning is at root a bodily phenomenon that
emerges from the way the body fits into and is oriented by a situation beyond and prior to what is
meant” (329). To illustrate this concept Morris references the French word sens. Sens deals with
direction and sensation, which is to say that we make meaning out of our sensations. Morris argues
this is a shift from meaning to sense, in which we expand the concept of meaning beyond just being
attributed “in our heads”. If our first communication with the world is through perception it follows
that we add meaning to these perceptions with our sensations of them. Morris argues that “Sense
entails differences that make a difference” (329). In this way, sense, or meaning, can be constructed
as differences in experience that make an actual difference to the perceiving subject. Morris uses the
example of glucose and a bacterium. The presence of the glucose makes a difference in the behavior
of the bacterium (it swims toward it), and the presence of gold does not. The difference (presence of
glucose) therefore makes a difference to the bacterium and so the glucose molecules have meaning to
the bacterium and the gold would not. If we “don’t find that difference making a difference, you
have a dead bacterium (or one not sensitive to glucose)” (330). Here Morris is making an argument
on our understanding of ontology, the study of being, and arguing for a new way to conceive of the
world as having meaning already inherent in many things through differences that make a difference.
I am going to extend this argument from meaning inherent in reality to the way we consciously
construct meaning using the same mechanisms of differences that make a difference. For
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clarification, I will use an analogy of a human example: a person wearing a wedding ring. If I were
single and saw a wedding ring on a person I found attractive I would be less willing to ask them on a
date assuming they would say no, being married. Now if I come across someone not wearing a
wedding ring I find attractive I would be more willing to ask them on a date. The difference here is
the presence of the wedding ring and the meaning (datable or not) is constructed by me as a subject
of this experience, as I perceive the difference. So the difference in experience is what allows me to
construct meaning to the perceptions of that experience.
To summarize, we are born into a human body that is subject to experiences through
perceptions and rooted in the world. We cannot step outside this body, or the world, and so must
accept that we are grounded in our body as a subject to the perceptions of the world around us. This
is our first line of communication with the world and indeed how we build the meaning of things
around us. Consciousness as it is must be subject to something, for we cannot be conscious of
nothing at all. Consciousness is then seen as directed by the perceptions we receive as a body subject
to the world since these are our first lines of communication with the world. Taking these
perceptions or experiences into account, we then make meaning out of them consciously with the
identification of differences that make a difference to our perceptions. So my body which is
embedded in the world is subject to perceptions of the world around me of which I then am
conscious of through perception and I then make meaning of those perceptions and therefore
subjectively construct the world around me through my experience.
III
With consciousness embedded in the body-subject in the world, a transition to animal
consciousness can be made. First and foremost, there has been some issue of animal consciousness
in the early writings of Merleau-Ponty. Ted Toadvine discusses this in Merleau-Ponty’s Philosophy
of Nature by saying “While Merleau-Ponty’s approach retains these echoes of the sharp divide
between human and animal already sketched out in the work of his predecessors, in his own thinking
the human-animal relation, or more generally the relation between life and mind, remains a point of
significant tension” (83-84). Toadvine argues that there are issues in which Merleau-Ponty drew a
sharp distinction between human and animal consciousness such as the “peculiar ontological role that
the human being plays, throughout Merleau-Ponty’s work, as being’s means of self-expression”(84).
Toadvine is pointing out that in some earlier works Merleau-Ponty held the condition of being human
as ontologically significant in the way being it itself could express itself. While this would seem to
present a problem to my argument, Merleau-Ponty’s later thoughts on the subject did change
significantly. An example of this change is found in The World of Perception, which is a
compilation of written radio lectures by Merleau-Ponty in 1948. In that book Merleau-Ponty argues
that “in fact this world is not just open to other human beings but also to animals. . .who dwell in it
after their own fashion; they coexist in this world”(70). This change in thought opens up the world
of perception to the animal and recognizes animal consciousness.
I argue that animals, having a physical body rooted in the world with similar morphological
structures to allow for perception of the world, would be constituted as a body-subject of the world
and as such have a consciousness of those perceptions in which they create and discover meaning
and so construct their subjective view of the world. Many animals have a very similar physical body
structure as the human being. While they may take various shapes and forms, they have the same
basic structural components that allow them to navigate the world. They have sensory organs such as
ears, eyes, and noses, etc. Even Descartes noted that animals have all the same basic features of
human beings. From the same basic make up comes the idea that the animal is itself also another
body-subject of the world just as is the human being.
Being another body-subject of the world means the animal is also subject to perceptions of
the world. This would be the first line of communication to the world just as it is in the human being.
Animals then construct their world out of those perceptions and discover the meaning within creating
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their own subjective perspective on the world. As human beings can experience a difference that
makes a difference and discover meaning so too should an animal be able to in its construction of the
world. The creation of meaning from perception is the recognition of differences and not necessarily
a function of some higher order thought only human beings have access to. (This is not to say no
meaning is constructed from higher cognitive functions for certainly this is not the case as we can
self-reflect on something and create and apply new meaning and indeed do all the time. I am only
claiming that it is not the only way to create meaning). This can be reflected in the animal’s
behaviors towards its environment, for example my dog may take a liking to a specific ball and
exclusively carry around that ball. Then for instance one day I decide the ball is too old and dirty and
throw it away. My dog will search endlessly for that specific ball and may even not like any new
toys I attempt to substitute it with. As a human being I cannot fully understand the meaning to be
found in the ball but from the dog’s subjective experience it has discovered a meaning in it and so the
difference of its being found or not has a meaning to the dog. Animals communicate with the world
and construct and discover their own meaning within from their subjective viewpoint through their
perceptions just as human beings do, and so they would also be conscious of the world and their
experiences in it.
The argument against the appearance of animals making meaning in the world is that while it
may appear so, there is a perfectly good mechanistic explanation of the behavior and so any
subjective experience should be discarded. This was outlaid by Griffin earlier in the behavioristic
model. The argument is that somehow the human brain is the key difference in that our vastly
superior intellect and ability for self-reflection excludes other creatures from conscious experience as
they lack ability to inform us of their subjective experiences. Firstly I must point out that the lack of
ability to inform another being of a subjective experience does not exclude that experience from
existence. For example, people with extreme mental disabilities may lack the ability to inform us of
their personal subjective experience but we do not simply conclude that they therefore have no
interior conscious experiences. Another problem is that this outlook assumes an anthropocentric
notion of consciousness, considering only the human subjective experience. Meaning to an animal
would be different than meaning to a human and this is reflected in the behavioral differences.
Merleau-Ponty argued that “Thus in spite of what mechanistic biology might suggest, the world we
live in is not made up only of things and space: some of these parcels of matter, which we call living
beings, proceed to trace in their environment, by the way they act or behave, their very own vision of
things” (75). He goes on to say that if only we were to pay enough attention to and “live alongside”
the animal world we could see this to be true. Casting an anthropocentric lens on the study of animal
behavior can limit our ability to understand it in any way other than by comparing it to human
behavior, and so likewise as the saying goes if we judge a fish by its ability to climb trees we will
think the fish very unskilled.
Another argument against this approach to consciousness deals with situations where a
subject may still receive perceptions but not appear to be conscious of them, like victims of severe
strokes. In the case of the stroke victim they would still be subject to the same perceptions persay,
such as the light in the room, or sounds, or touches, but they may not respond at all to them. So if
consciousness arises out of perception then the stroke victim should have a consciousness the
argument goes. In response to the stroke victim critique I argue that since perception is a bodily
phenomenon, and the brain is wired into the body at every level the consciousness that arises out of
bodily perceptions would be altered if there where damage to the body in some way. This naturally
includes the brain as the nerve center of the body and the filter through which many perceptions
come. In the case of the stroke victim, there has been severe damage to the brain, through which
their perceptions are received and likewise it would create a different perceptual world for the victim
to have access to. Since consciousness, as previously mentioned, is an awareness of perceptions one
must have the proper bodily organ in which to be aware with. So the stroke victim with the damaged
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brain has a vastly altered perceptual field which accounts for their apparent lack of what we could
call conscious activities. Consciousness is still a very physical aspect of our being and as such
damage to the physical body would alter the conscious experience.
The phenomenon of consciousness is a very complex and difficult thing to discuss, but
phenomenology has shown to add new avenues of thought in dealing with it. The fields of Cognitive
Ethology and the Cambridge declaration previously mentioned reflect a subtle shift in the acceptance
of animal consciousness in the scientific field. The modern philosophical discussions of animal
consciousness present a shift toward new perspectives on the issue. If Merleau-Ponty is correct and
consciousness is rooted in the body stuck in the world, and Morris is correct that meaning can be
constructed from differences that make a difference, then there is no reason to doubt that animals can
also have conscious experience of the world. They are rooted in the same body-subject experience
set in the same world of perceptions. Animals also experience differences that make a difference to
their subjective experience and allow them to discover meaning in the world. Animals are conscious
beings in the world the same as humans are, only from a different subjective experience. Taking a
phenomenological approach to the issue of animal minds opens up new directions in which we
perceive the mind of another being and provides new insights into how we understand the
phenomenon of consciousness itself.
Works Cited
Antony, Michael. “Concepts of Consciousness, Kinds of Consciousness, Meanings of
Consciousness.” Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the
Analytic Tradition. 109.1 (2002): 1-16. JSTOR. Web. 11 Oct 2013.
Aristotle. On the Soul. Trans. Joe Sachs. Santa Fe: Green Lion Press, 2001. Print
---,Nicomachean Ethics. Trans. Joe Sachs. Newburyport: Focus Publishing, 2002. Print
Carruthers, Peter. “Animal Subjectivity.” Psyche 4.3 (1998): n. pag. Web. 12 Oct 2013.
Carel, Havi, Darian Meacham, and David Morris. “From The Nature of Meaning To A
Phenomenological Refiguring of Nature.” Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement, 72
(2013): 317-341. Print.
Descartes, Rene. Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason and Seeking Truth in
the Sciences. (1637) Project Gutenberg. Web. 12 Oct 2013.
Griffin, Donald. Animal Minds: Beyond Cognition to Consciousness. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2001. Print.
Hume, David. A Treatise of Human Nature. 1888. Ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge. London: Oxford
University Press, 1965. Print.
Kamil, Alan, “On the Proper Definition of Cognitive Ethology” (1998). Papers in Behavior and
Biological Sciences. Paper 18. Web 14 Nov 2013.
Low, Phillip. “The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness.” Ed. Jaak Panksepp et al. Francis
Crick Memorial Conference. 7 July 2012, Cambridge, UK. Web 19 Nov 2013.
Lurz, Robert. “Animal Consciousness.” The Journal Of Philosophical Research 24 (1999): 149-168.
Print.
Lurz, Robert. “The Philosophy of Animal Minds: an Introduction.” The Philogophy of Animal
Minds. Ed. Robert Lurz. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009. 1-14. Print
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. The Phenomenology of Perception. Trans. Colin Smith. New York:
Routledge Classics, 2005. Print.
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Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. The World of Perception. New York: Routledge. 2004. Print.
Nagel, Thomas. “What Is It Like To Be a Bat?” Analytic Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Eds. A.P
Martinich and David Sosa. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. 302-310. Print.
Toadvine, Ted. Merleau-Ponty’s Philosophy of Nature. Evanston: Northwestern University Press,
2009. Print.
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Life, Lottery, for the Pursuit of Organs
by Virginia Meglio
(Philosophy 1100)
C
urrently, there are a limited number of organs for transplant due to the fact that it’s based on
donation, however, what if organ donation were made mandatory- would such a system be
just? Philosopher John Harris argues it would. He believes that ethical societies would
endorse and benefit from his mandatory organ donation concept known as the “survival lottery”. In
this model, citizens are each given a number and when two or more organs are needed to save
patients in need of transplants, a number would be pulled at random. The individual whose number
has been selected would then have their organs harvested and distributed to the patients in need. His
scheme operates under the assumption that the procedure for organ transplants has been perfected,
and that the program is designed to ensure equal age distribution in society. Harris provides several
explanations for why this lottery would be beneficial to society and examines the possible objections
to his argument. Although Harris attempts to address the flaws in his system, I will argue throughout
this paper that his efforts fall short and his argument is unsuccessful.
Harris provides several reasons for why the lottery would be beneficial to society and
examines the possible objections to his argument by first explaining the different roles that the people
involved would play. Specifically, he examines the role of patients “Y” and “Z”: the individuals in
need of organs in order to survive. He also examines the role of the doctor who, Harris argues, would
be responsible for the deaths of patients Y and Z if he rejects the survival lottery. We recognize that
the doctor cannot be blamed for the death of his patients if there are no available organs to perform a
transplant, but Harris proposes that there may very well be available organs that a healthy man, “A”,
possesses that could save multiple patients. If the doctor is obligated to treat, has the opportunity and
fails to do so, he would be responsible for their deaths since there is no distinction between killing
and letting die. The responsibility of having to choose whose organs to remove is taken away from
the doctor as a result of the implementation of the lottery.
Harris recognizes that many philosophers say there is a significant difference between killing
a person and letting them die, therefore, the doctor is morally obligated not to kill. Even though the
doctor has a moral obligation to his patients to save their lives, it is of higher moral obligation that he
not kill. Harris counters this idea, saying that from the perspective of patient Y and Z, A is no more
innocent than they are, so it brings into question why one innocent life would seem to have greater
importance over two innocent lives. This propels his argument further to say that the doctor should
have a stronger moral obligation to ensure that a greater number of people are spared, and therefore a
stronger ethical incentive to take one innocent man’s life in order to spare two.
There would be an immense psychological impact on the individual selected, the doctors
performing the operation, and society at large surrounding the idea that someone must choose who
will die, and someone will in fact die. It is for this reason that Harris offers the idea of the lottery, so
that the individual would be picked at random and no one person would have the burden of choosing
which life to take. He argues that although people would be apprehensive about being called to give
their organs, the likelihood of one person having to do so would be just as likely as an individual
being struck by lightning, or eaten by a lion. Therefore, the apprehension experienced by people
would not be a likely factor for disapproving of such a scheme. On the contrary, Harris argues that
people would actually feel more secure by having this system implemented. Harris concludes that
there’s more distress without the lottery than there is with it, and less people would suffer as a result
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of having the lottery in their society (Harris 276).
One of the largest objections faced by the survival lottery is the opposition people have
toward the notion of “natural” death, dying due to natural causes, and taking life purposely, which is
what this lottery would do in order to save those who are dying of natural causes. By man
orchestrating who is given life and who has it taken away, it is essentially playing God or changing
destiny, which many feel great hesitancy to do. Harris addresses this objection, communicating
through his argument that “It’s morally okay to violate any rule”, in this case, killing one innocent
life, “if doing so will raise overall well-being”, that is, sparing two innocent lives (Shafer-Landau
128). Harris explains that if we don’t kill one, our failure in doing so is killing multiple, so either way
loss is occurring. Therefore, it is not a plausible argument to say that the lottery involves killing and
reject it simply for that reason alone because electing to discard the lottery results in the same
consequence.
Because of what the lottery demands, the idea of saintliness would become obligatory; every
individual would be mandated to give their lives when called. However, what about the rights of the
individual who is chosen? The system does not require an individual to give their direct consent,
which would violate their right to choose what to do with their body. This argument is addressed
again through the eyes of patients Y and Z, who would contend that if arguing from a perspective of
self-defense, that same right is applied to them. Their well-being outweighs the harm that would be
done to A. Since they have just as much right to defend themselves against harm, if they must kill A
in order to defend themselves, then they would be blameless for doing so. Otherwise, the individual
who survives will be doing so “over their dead bodies” (Harris 277).
A problematic area that Harris attempts to deal with is the issue of selection. He brings up an
idea that most would think would be suitable for the lottery to work, where Y and Z and the patients
alike would be the pool from which to select from, putting no more outside individuals’ lives at risk.
Harris again takes the position of patients Y and Z, explaining how their rights would be violated by
this so called solution. Y and Z would feel that their lives are of less importance and value than those
of the outside parties. This same issue extends to the terminally ill and those who are dying and
cannot be spared. We would again be isolating a group of the population by telling them that since
they will die anyway, their life, whatever is left of it, is less valuable than anyone else’s. Harris
opposes this idea of selection from the terminally ill group by saying that the last few weeks of life
for the dying can arguably be the most valuable, even more valuable than the rest of their life, so it
can’t be justified to solely select from this group (Harris 278-79). The issue of trying not to
discriminate against one group from another through the selection process of the lottery is one of
great concern for the survival lottery’s achievement.
Harris recognizes that his argument comes under scrutiny, but he doesn’t think any rival
philosophical views disprove his argument. If this is the case, it would be implausible to reject the
lottery. He begins by saying that any moral theory opposed to the lottery in that it involves the death
of innocent lives is mistaken because without the lottery, there could potentially be more loss of
innocent lives. According to the perspective that Harris argues from, “we are not allowed to ignore
the suffering of others” if we consider ourselves to be “members of the moral community” (ShaferLandau 129). Therefore, simply allowing innocent patients Y and Z to die would be just as bad as
killing them directly.
Harris acknowledges that the moral game changer in his argument is the intent of patients Y
and Z, and whether it is morally permissible. Some would argue since no one intentionally wishes for
the deaths of the patients, but the patients wish for the death of A, the patients would be wrong. Y
and Z disagree however, they don’t want the death of A, they just want his organs. Here the patients
rely upon an idea known as the Doctrine of Double Effect. As defined by Russ Shafer-Landau, the
doctrine of double effect, (DDE), is the view that if your goal is worthwhile, you are sometimes
permitted to act in ways that foreseeably cause certain harms, though you must never intend to cause
108
those harms (219). For Y and Z the death of A is a foreseeable consequence of harvesting his organs,
not the intended consequence. Harris delves deeper into this argument, addressing the belief that the
system is violent and vicious, and only a tainted mind would advocate such a program. But Y and Z
again would counter argue that to disagree with the lottery system would be immoral because you are
not giving equal respect to all human life. If all human lives are not morally equal then we need some
criteria for determining the weight of human life. If there are no such criteria available, it is safer to
operate as if all lives have moral value rather than none.
Harris concludes his paper by reexamining the survival lottery, acknowledging the weak
spots in its potential success such as its susceptibility to corruption, difficulties in determining who is
a viable candidate to receive a transplant, the psychological damage that may ensue as a result, and
other objections which we see him try to counter throughout his paper. Ultimately, Harris argues that
we are incorrect to conclude that the survival lottery is wrong strictly on the basis that it results in the
intentional death of one innocent life- there must be more to disqualify it for being morally
impermissible. John Harris claims that although there may be apprehension and opposition to his
idea, the failure to adopt such a system would ultimately result in the loss of more innocent lives.
Therefore, Harris believes societies and the people within them would be more successful, morally
stable, and ultimately reasonable by implementing the survival lottery into their communities.
Although Harris addresses some of the objections made to his argument and attempts to
argue for the survival lottery’s moral success, ultimately it fails. There are several weaknesses to his
concept that make the idea of the organ lottery unsuccessful. One of these weaknesses is the pool
from which participants would be selected, and the effect that would then have on the promotion of
well-being in society. By default, the survival lottery can only choose from a pool of healthy
individuals who have able organs from which to give. If that’s the case, this would have the opposite
effect of promoting healthy human beings. If the pool of participants must be fit enough to provide
organs to those in need, people would intentionally try to eliminate themselves from the pool by
engaging in activities that would deem their organs unviable, thereby counteracting the promotion of
well-being that Harris argued his lottery would provide. Although Harris argues that installing this
type of system into society encourages well-being, it can be argued that as a result of its installment,
individuals would wish that they not be healthy in order to avoid being selected in the lottery.
Another area where Harris’ argument falls short is his attempt to eliminate unfairness. Harris
recognizes that it would be unfair to kill A so that patients who are responsible for the decline of their
own organs from things like excessive drinking and smoking, can continue these behaviors of
overindulgence with their newly gained organs. But Harris fails to give a solution for this major
issue. It also may be difficult to determine who actually is responsible and who isn’t. He also argues
that it would be unfair to strictly select from the terminally ill and the individuals in need of organs
because that would be singling them out from society. The fault with this argument is that by
excluding the ill from the lottery, you are still discriminating against another group of individuals:
the healthy. Harris recognizes this flaw, but fails to acknowledge that by accepting this as part of the
survival lottery, he is ultimately giving higher value to the unhealthy, contradicting his prior claim
that the survival lottery makes it so no life has higher value over another’s. According to Nelson, “if
Y and Z are members of the community and if they are not immune from the lottery due to the
unhealthy lifestyle choices that would also exclude them from the lottery, it follows that they should
be liable to the lottery, too” (399). If it truly were the case that all lives were viewed equally under
such a scheme, then the people in search of an organ would also be subject to the lottery alongside
the other healthy individuals with viable organs to give.
One point that Harris uses for the basis of his argument that can be argued against is the
concept that the lottery ensures all lives are viewed as equal. It’s difficult to say however that if, say,
the president of the United States were to have his organs harvested, there would not be an exception
made for him. It could be argued that his role in society is of great instrumental value and importance
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since it promotes a high level of well-being, and his maintenance of life would promote the most
overall good than if he were to participate in the lottery. Although he has no more right to life than Y
or Z, it would be reasonable to excuse him from the program. It seems that excuses could plausibly
be made for certain individuals in society, rendering the lottery unsuccessful since not everyone is on
an equal playing field for being subject to the lottery. An objection could be made to this argument
though, that if one can be excused from the lottery based on their immense contribution to society, if
the lottery were implemented, we should only select from a group which makes little to no
contribution to society to promote overall well-being for the greatest number of people. This line of
thinking would then essentially justify the killing of the disabled and other groups alike, which as a
society we know to be morally impermissible, but would seem justifiable if the lottery were to be
employed. Because it seems we can make excuses for some individuals to be excluded from the
lottery, it makes the idea Harris has that all lives are equal and should be taken to spare others,
implausible, thereby making the lottery scheme ineffective. Speaking within the context of the
survival lottery, the medically needy are favored; therefore, life does not appear to be as equal as
Harris claims under such a system, making it inoperable within society.
Another idea that can be criticized in John Harris’ argument is whether or not it would truly
be morally obligatory for a society to function under such a system. Consider Judith Jarvis
Thomson’s analogy of the violinist where you are kidnapped and hooked up to a world famous
violinist and told that if you unhook yourself from him, he will die. If you don’t unhook yourself,
then you will die from the strain he is putting on your kidneys. No one would say you are morally
obligated to stay hooked up to the violinist because you have been put there against your will, and
you are dying as a result. Therefore if you unhooked yourself, you certainly wouldn’t be considered a
murderer. The cost, which is your own life, is far too great a price to ask to pay for a stranger (35354). As it would be morally praiseworthy for you to stay hooked up to the violinist, it would be
morally praiseworthy for an individual to volunteer to give their organs to save another life, but
certainly not obligatory. Because in the lottery you are forced to give up your organs and in the
analogy of the violinist are kidnapped and forced to be hooked up to him, “it wouldn’t be morally
wrong to neglect helping the violinist, if selected, if one never intended to in the first place” just as it
wouldn’t be morally wrong to refuse the mandatory organ lottery because no one is electing to be in
it in the first place (Nobis and Jarr-Koroma 60). And just as if you were to unhook yourself from the
violinist you would not be thought of as a murderer, your opposition to the organ lottery and Y and
Z’s resulting death would not be thought of as murder by your hand.
Examining this idea further, individuals are not obligated to promote the well-being of
strangers, unless voluntarily obligating themselves to such an individual, which we don’t see
happening within the context of the survival lottery. When reviewed from a feminist perspective,
“…care cannot be parceled out to everyone equally”, therefore “impartial benevolence” is an
unrealistic expectation and certainly not a mandatory one for rational individuals to be moral (ShaferLandau 279). According to Judith Jarvis Thomson, “having a right to life does not guarantee having
either a right to be given the use of or a right to be allowed continued use of another person’s bodyeven if one needs it for life itself”, thereby disproving the claim Y and Z have for their right to use
another’s organs for their survival and ultimately the survival lottery in itself (359).
One problematic portion of Harris’s argument is Y and Z’s use of the doctrine of double
effect. Y and Z explain that the death of A is not part of their plan, they just want to use his organs,
and if he cannot live without them, then that’s too bad (Harris 279). This line of thinking that only
the intention of the action can deem it moral or immoral is highly problematic, and can justify what
reasonable human beings would deem as horrendous and immoral actions. According to Lisa Day,
“Using the PDE to allow the hastening of death as a foreseeable but unintended effect of preserving
organs blurs the rule…[that] organ procurement cannot be the cause of death; the donor must have
already died of causes unrelated to organ recovery before procurement takes place” (336). Would a
110
reasonable person say that there is a difference between harvesting someone’s organs and having
them die versus killing someone by harvesting their organs? Take for example, that my dog is obese
and needs to lose weight. My intention is to have him lose that weight as fast as possible, so I choose
not to feed him for a week. As a result, he dies from starvation. It’s common knowledge that without
food and water, animals will die. Just because my intention was good, it seems unlikely that someone
would say my actions were justified and not call ASPCA for animal cruelty. But, according to the
DDE, this sort of thinking can be justified because my intentions were good; I foresaw my dog’s
death, but my actions were still acceptable. Any reasonable human being would seem to disagree
with such a sentiment. Likewise, it would be just as absurd to argue that Y and Z are justified in
taking A’s life. It’s common knowledge that harvesting someone’s organs would result in their
inevitable death. In this case, there is no way to distinguish between the actions which Y and Z
intend and the actions which they foresee, which is a good reason to believe that the DDE fails in this
situation.
Therefore, reasonable people would not accept the survival lottery as a plausible solution to
the issue as Harris suggests. As Russ Schaefer-Landau explains by even using an example similar to
that of Harris’ argument, “if we were to abduct a number of healthy people…and cut them up to
distribute their vital organs to those who would otherwise die…we could minimize misery…but
[this] way of minimizing harm [is] deeply offensive”(219). Our natural repulsion towards the idea of
the selection of death, even to save one or more people and minimize misery, is in part, evidence of
its own for the moral difference between letting die and killing. There is a clear distinction between
allowing someone to die of natural causes and bringing about another individual’s death, and the
lottery breaks this moral line.
This paper has been an analysis and evaluation of John Harris’ argument for the moral
success of the survival lottery. Although Harris exemplifies potential benefits and attempts to address
the flaws within his argument, there are still detrimental gaps within the scheme that make the
survival lottery unsuitable for reasonable societies to adhere to. One potential argument against my
criticism of John Harris’ survival lottery could be that I have not specified the conditions in which
there is a relevant moral difference between killing and letting die. It hasn’t been my purpose to say
that there always is a distinction between the two, just that in this circumstance, things are not as
equal as Harris suggests. Although it may be argued that there’s no difference between letting die and
killing, and it is of highest obligation to promote the well-being of the most people, the intentional
death of A, and the unintentional hand that Y and Z were dealt, speaks against this objection. Y and
Z’s death would be brought on by no one in particular, while A’s death would be brought on by the
hand of Y and Z. There seems to be a clear distinction of how death would be brought upon the
individuals involved, proving why this potential weakness in my argument does not threaten the
validity of my evaluation. Although at face value, saving two lives versus one seems appealing, when
implemented through John Harris’ survival lottery, it is deemed unsuccessful, and ultimately
immoral.
Works Cited
Day, Lisa. “Boundaries of Double Effect.” American Journal of Critical Care 14.4 (2005): 334-337.
Academic OneFile. Web. 31 Mar. 2014.
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Harris, John. “The Survival Lottery.” The Ethical Life: Fundamental Readings in Ethics and Moral
Problems. Ed. Russ Shafer-Landau. New York: Oxford University Press Inc, 2012. 272-80.
Print.
Nelson, Mark T. “Y And Z Are Not Off The Hook: The Survival Lottery Made Fairer.” Journal of
Medicine & Philosophy 35.4 (2010): 396-401. Academic Search Complete. Web. 29 Mar.
2014.
Nobis, Nathan, and Abubakarr Sidique Jarr-Koroma. “Abortion And Moral Arguments From
Analogy.” American Journal Of Bioethics 10.12 (2010): 59-61. Academic Search Complete.
Web. 29 Mar. 2014.
Shafer-Landau, Russ. The Fundamentals of Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press Inc, 2012.
Print.
Thomson, Judith Jarvis. “A Defense of Abortion.” The Ethical Life: Fundamental Readings in Ethics
and Moral Problems. Ed. Russ Shafer-Landau. New York: Oxford University Press Inc,
2012. 351-63.
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A Fountain Very Exhaustible: The Pollution and Restoration of Lake Michigan
by Bryan Mundt
(English 1102)
O
n August 2, 1885, torrential rains fell on the city of Chicago. In just 24 hours, over six inches
of rain fell upon the city. Sewers backed up, basements flooded and gravel paved Lake Shore
Drive was washed away (Cahan and Williams 12). But the citizens and officials of the early
city were not distraught at the flooding or the damage it caused, instead they were elated that the
dusty, slimy and filthy city had, in essence, been given a bath. The superintendent of sewers boasted
that “public health will be vastly improved” now that the city’s 420 miles of sewers, including the
cesspool that was the Chicago river, were “purged of all the filth” and swept out to Lake Michigan
(Platt 363). Even the Chicago Daily News reported that Chicago was probably the cleanest city on
the continent (Cahan and Williams 12). Yet during all the jubilation that followed the flood,
Commissioner of Public Works and the man in charge of Chicago’s Water management, DeWitt
Clinton Cregier, assured concerned residents that the mass of sludge, oil and sewage posed no threat
to the city’s drinking water supply, even though this mass was drifting its way toward the water
intake crib, located two miles offshore (Platt 365). The mentality of city officials after the flood of
1885 has continued to echo since that day in regards to pollution of Lake Michigan, as well as the
entire Great Lakes region. The Great Lakes account for approximately 20% of the world’s surface
freshwater, and 95% of North America’s. Even though they are located, geographically, in the northeastern part of the United States, one in 10 U.S. residents depend on them for their drinking water
(Maeda 70). This essay will argue that there is no acceptable level of pollution to Lake Michigan and
that restoration efforts need to be ongoing and sustained in order to reverse over one hundred years of
damage caused by careless pollution into one of the largest bodies of fresh water in the world.
Even though Native Americans inhabited the area we call Chicago for centuries before,
history gives credit for its origins to Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette. In 1673, while paddling
upstream on the Mississippi River, Jolliet and Marquette came to the mouth of the Illinois River. It
was there they discovered the fertile soil of the prairies as well as the abundant wood and wildlife. As
they continued their diagonal trek upstream on the Illinois River and then to the Des Plaines River,
they had to slide their canoes through a swampy, wet grassland called Mud Lake. This portage was
often used by the Native Americans as a shortcut to Lake Michigan and it was here Jolliet first felt
the need to alter the land that took nature thousands of years to produce. He wrote “all that needs to
be done is to dig a canal through half a league of prairie from the lower end of Lake Michigan to the
river of St. Louis (the Illinois River)” (Cahan and Williams 15). However, Jolliet was mistaken when
he thought a canal would only need to be less than two miles long, as during low water periods of the
year, one would have had to carry a boat five or 10 miles. Instead it was later determined that a canal
ninety-six miles in length would need to be constructed, connecting the South Branch of the Chicago
River to a prairie outpost on the Illinois River called LaSalle. The I&M canal was completed in 1848
and was an instant commercial success. It was one of the main contributors to the growth of Chicago,
causing the city’s population to skyrocket from less than five thousand in 1840 to one million in 1890
(Cahan and Williams 16). It was due to this population growth, however, that led to the first real
pollution of Lake Michigan.
Early citizens received their drinking water from private wells on their own properties;
however, these wells soon became contaminated with dishwater, garbage, privy waste, even
underground clay which eventually led to outbreaks of cholera and typhoid (Cahan and Williams 17).
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Around the 1850’s, the city started drawing its water from the abundant, near pure drinking water of
Lake Michigan. At first water was drawn directly from the lake shore via cast iron pipes and stored in
huge reservoirs across the city’s three main sections. But soon enough, the lake water started tasting
bad due to the run-off from the South Side stockyards and Northside distilleries that were dumping
their waste directly into the Chicago River which emptied into the lake (Cahan and Williams 17).
The south branch of the river took on its own name, “Bubbly Creek,” due to the physical bubbling
and churning of the waters from the waste decomposing in it. Journalist and novelist Upton Sinclair,
who was gathering information about the Chicago Stockyards, described the scene,
It is constantly in motion as if huge fish were feeding in it or great leviathans
disporting themselves in its depths…Here and there the grease and filth have caked
solid, and the creek looks like a bed of lava; chickens walk about on it, feeding…The
packers used to leave the creek that way, till every now and then the surface would
catch on fire and burn furiously” (qtd. in Brett 42).
Desperate to remedy the drinking water issue, and faced with a cholera epidemic, the city
hired engineer Ellis Sylvester Chesbrough to find a solution. Chesborugh’s first design did nothing to
improve the pollution pouring into the lake. While raising the city streets ten feet to accommodate a
new network of sewers kept the garbage out of the streets, the new sewers still led to the same place,
the Chicago River (Cahan and Williams 17). Chesbrough’s next plan entailed locating the water
intake crib two miles off shore, then connecting it to the city’s waterworks via a tunnel that was built
under the lake bed. “Two-Mile Crib” was completed on March 25, 1867 to much fanfare. The city, it
seemed, had an endless supply of pure drinking water available to them. The editor of the Chicago
Times, Wilbur F. Storey even wrote, “We have the purest water in the world…We have tapped the
lake at a point where exists only ever-lasting purity” (Platt 136-137). However, the growing concern
over the toxicity of the Chicago River and its pollution of the lake reached a head after the flood of
1885 with proof that the water being collected at Two-Mile crib was compromised by the sewage
that was swept from the city just two days prior. Chesbrough devised a new solution to the city’s
sewage problem; he proposed building a new canal 28 miles in length, connecting the Chicago River
with the Des Plaines River in Lockport, Illinois (Brett 42). This new canal, named the Chicago
Sanitary and Ship Canal was completed on January 2, 1900. The massive new channel was able to
permanently reverse the flow of the Chicago River by pulling in massive amounts of lake water, and
flushing the filth downstream (Brett 43). However, a hundred years later and partially due to climate
change, the river is at risk of reversing its course once again and flowing back into Lake Michigan.
Normally the river sits approximately six inches below the lake, allowing the lake water to flow into
the river, but in 2013 after 320 days without at least one inch of snow, coupled with a hot and dry
summer, water levels in the lake were at the lowest in history and almost equalized with the river
(Bailey). If this trend continues, and the river reverses course, the city will have develop a new plan
to deal with the, still polluted, Chicago River. Short term options include limiting boat traffic
traveling to and from the lake, thereby limiting the amount of time the locks separating the two
bodies of water sit open (Bailey).
While the Chicago River historically was a major cause of pollution to lake, and still has the
potential to be, other pollutants continue to be dumped by several other industries. In 1953, the S.S.
Badger ferry entered service, primarily to transport railroad freight cars across Lake Michigan
between Manitowoc, Wisconsin, and Ludington, Michigan (Hawthorne, “Badger”). The Badger is
the last coal-powered steamship on the Great Lakes, and during a single sailing, season it dumps
approximately 509 tons of coal ash directly into the lake. The ash is concentrated with arsenic, lead,
mercury and other heavy metals (Hawthorne, “Badger”). To make matters worse, the company that
operates the ferry service, Lake Michigan Carferry Service, was granted an exception to the Clean
114
Water Act, which allows the continued dumping of coal ash into the lake through the 2014 sailing
season. The company originally sought an exception to the Act by attempting to register the ship as a
National Historic Landmark, thereby allowing the ship to continue polluting the lake indefinitely
(Hawthorne, “Badger”). The ship’s operator states they are outfitting the engines with equipment to
store the coal ash onboard. The upgrades should be completed by the start of the 2015 sailing season
(April 2014 Press Release: S.S Badger).
The London company, British Petroleum (BP), has also been a longtime polluter of Lake
Michigan. BP operates an oil refinery on the lake shore in Whiting, Indiana, and a mere 8 miles
southeast of Chicago’s 68th Street water intake crib. In July 2007, the Indiana Department of
Environmental Management granted a permit exempting BP from a 1995 federal regulation limiting
the amount of mercury discharged into the Great Lakes to 1.3 ounces per year. BP reported that it
released approximately three pounds of mercury into Lake Michigan each year between 2002 and
2005 (Carmichael). The company argued that it required the permit in connection to its $3.8 billion
expansion to the refinery and Indiana officials backed them up, stating that the amount of mercury
BP was releasing was “minor” (Carmichael). Unfortunately, mercury is a neurotoxin that is absorbed
by fish and can be harmful if eaten in sufficient quantities. Even more recently, BP spilled over 1,600
gallons of crude oil into the lake from the same Indiana refinery. On March 24, 2014, workers
noticed an oil sheen on the water and traced the spill to a distillation unit that processes heavy
Canadian oil from the tar sands region of Alberta (Hawthorn, “BP”). Even though the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency said that the spill most likely poses no long-term risks to Lake
Michigan, it raises serious questions about the safety of this refinery as well as other industries on the
lake. We will now look at past and present efforts that have been put forth in order to not only limit
the pollution of the Great Lakes, but to help restore the damage that has already been done.
With the Great Lakes being the sheer size they are, the argument is often made that the
amount of toxic chemicals being released is minimal. However, many of these chemicals and
substances build up over time in the sediment beds of the lakes. This accumulation coupled with the
fact that the Great Lakes only have a single outlet, the St. Lawrence River, means that the lakes are
“like a giant bathtub with a really, really slow drain and a dripping faucet, so the toxics build up over
time,” said Emily Green, director of the Great Lakes program of the Sierra Club (qtd. in Carmichael).
In an effort to have oversight and authority over the Great Lakes, the governments of the United
States and Britain created the International Joint Commission in 1909 (Sproule-Jones 37-38). Except
for some studies on pollution levels and minor recommendations on sewage treatment in the early
1900’s, the first major restoration efforts began with the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreements of
1972 and 1978. The agreements would work to limit the amount of excess nutrient loadings and
control of toxic substances, respectively (Sproule-Jones 39-41). The U.S. federal government has
initiated its own acts, such as the Safe Drinking Water Act, which regulates 83 potential water
contaminants, and more recently, the Obama administration announced the Great Lakes Restoration
Initiative in February 2009 (Landers 26). One of the main focuses of the initiative is to reduce the
amount of mercury and pharmaceutical products entering the lakes due improper disposal of
electronics, medicines, and household hazardous waste. Contaminated sediments in 31 “areas-ofconcerns” are also slated to be cleaned up as part of the restoration efforts (Landers 27). Heavy
metals and chemicals in sediments are consumed by micro-organisms, which are consumed by the
smallest minnows, which are then in turn consumed by larger and larger fish. These pollutants are
not metabolized by the organisms and build up over time. This is why each of the eight Great Lake
states warns residents to avoid eating certain types of larger, longer lived fish (Carmichael). If
successful, efforts and regulations such as these will continue to make a positive impact on the health
and restoration of the Great Lakes.
As so often has occurred throughout history, it is human nature to be narrow sighted on the
impacts we make to this planet. As a young, growing city, Chicago was naive to believe that the great
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inland sea in its backyard was “a fountain inexhaustible” (Platt 135), and when they did realize their
fallacies, they merely devised new ways to sweep away the filth, instead of developing ways to
prevent it in the first place. With each new generation, every new business venture, new exceptions
are made to regulations that were developed to restore Great Lakes to the ecological splendor that
they once were. Greater accountability and enforcement of current rules and regulations need to
continue. I believe we are at a turning point however; more so now than ever, the human race is
realizing the fragility of the planet we call home. We are starting to realize the consequences of our
actions and we are taking steps to limit the impact of the footprint we leave. Lisa P. Jackson,
administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, said in 2010, “We’re committed to
creating a new standard of care that will leave the Great Lakes better for the next generation” (quoted
in Landers 26). I believe this to be a great piece of advice and guidance; if each one of us makes this
world just a little better for the next generation, the tides will change and hopefully the environment
can start to heal.
Works Cited
April 2014 Press Release: S.S Badger. April 2014. Web. 2014 1 May.
Bailey, Marissa. Continuing Drought Could Lead to Reversal of Chicago River Flow. 9 January
2013. Web. 1 May 2014.
Brett, Hansen. “The Reversal of The Chicago River: Flushing the System.” Civil Engineering 79.12
(2009): 40-43. Academic Search Complete. Web. 21 April 2014.
Cahan, Richard and Michael Williams. The Lost Panoramas: When Chicago Changed Its River and
the Land Beyond. Chicago: CityFiles Press, 2011. Print.
Carmichael, Bobby. “BP gets OK to dump mercury into lake.” USA Today 31 July 2007. Academic
Search Complete. Web. 21 April 2014.
Hawthorn, Michael. “BP Raises Estimate of Lake Michigan Oil Spill.” Chicago Tribune 28 March
2014. Web. 1 May 2014.
Hawthorne, Michael. “Badger Ferry Gets 2-year Reprieve from Pollution Rules.” Chicago Tribune
22 March 2013. Web. 1 May 2013.
Landers, Jay. “Federal ‘Action Plan’ Sets Ambitious Goals For Great Lakes Restoration.” Civil
Engineering 80.4 (2010): 26-29. Academic Search Complete. Web. 21 April 2014.
Maeda, Deborah. Troubled Waters: Asian Carp and the Great Lakes. New York: Nova Science
Publishers, 2011. Print.
Platt, Harold. Shock Cities: The Environmental Transformation and Reform of Manchester and
Chicago. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2005. Print.
Sproule-Jones, Mark. Restoration of the Great Lakes: Promises, Practices, Performances. East
Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2002. Print.
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Hospitality
by David O’Sullivan
(Philosophy 1110)
I
f a person were chosen, at random, to ponder the question “What is the opposite of cruelty?” it
would not be surprising for him or her to quickly answer with “kindness.” Not to say that people
do not think, but most may not see the question from a philosophical point of view. It is easy for
one to assume the answer is “kindness” because it may, at first, appear to be the “black-and-white”
solution. The opposite of bad is good. The opposite of up is down. But the opposite of cruelty has
more profundity and significance than the aforementioned examples.
The word “cruelty” comes from the Latin crudus, which roughly translates to physical harm
and bloodshed. In its simplest form, this is what cruelty is. According to philosopher Philip P. Hallie,
however, the worst kind of cruelty is less of a physical attack and more of an emotional one. In his
work titled “From Cruelty to Goodness,” he states that “… cruelty (what the anti-cruelty societies
usually call ‘substantial cruelty’) involves the maiming of a person’s dignity, the crushing of a
person’s self-respect.”1 In other words, Hallie is saying that to be cruel is to damage a person in such
a way that he or she feels worthless. After experiencing cruelty, kindness cannot restore one’s dignity
or self-respect.
Cruelty is an experience with which the human race bears great familiarity. If one were to
expand upon Hallie’s definition of cruelty, this experience originates from within human ranks as one
that is inflicted upon each other. This human act of cruelty has been witnessed throughout history,
and can be illustrated by the actions of world leaders in recent decades. One such example can be
seen through the result of Adolf Hitler’s rule of Germany during the Second World War. Elie Wiesel,
a holocaust survivor, describes his experience as a prisoner in his work Night. He states that, “We
were incapable of thinking of anything at all. Our senses were blunted; everything was blurred as in a
fog. It was no longer possible to grasp anything. The instincts of self-preservation, of self-defense, of
pride, had all deserted us”2. Elie’s explanation of the prisoners’ feelings, or lack thereof, conveys
what it is like to have suffered cruelty. Wiesel recalls that while being forced to run during frigid
winter nights, the guards would shout at them to run faster, calling them “swine” and “filthy sons of
bitches”3. This type of experience is beyond physical pain, and no amount of kindness could equal an
opposing force.
Imbalance of power, according to Hallie, is the key factor which preserves cruelty. He
believed that when both the victim and the victimizer believe the victim to be a lesser person, cruelty
will remain. One who has lost the willpower and confidence to end the cruelty they are enduring may
need strength from an outside source. It is imperative that this outside source carries the power
necessary to eradicate cruelty. This outside source of power is, in fact, the opposite of cruelty, and it
closely relates to the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.
In his writing “Respect for Persons,” Kant highlights the importance of treating people as an
end. In this he means that there is final value in every person, and one should not use another only as
a means to benefit themselves. Things, on the other hand, only have relative worth and can be used as
a means only.4 One could argue that if a person were only ever used, and not appreciated for his or
her value as a human, they would be experiencing cruelty. To know the opposite of cruelty, one must
understand the value of a person and the value of hospitality.
“Hospitality” is a word derived from the Latin term hospes, which means “host,” “stranger”
or “guest.” Generally speaking, the term “hospitality” is used when referring to a host treating a guest
117
with respect and providing for his or her needs. For an act to be considered hospitable, a “host” and
“guest” are not required in the literal sense. Simply treating a stranger with respect and accepting
them as a person is demonstrating hospitality. The understanding of this concept of hospitality carries
significance because it gives insight as to why Hallie believes it to be the opposite of cruelty.
Hallie describes the opposite of cruelty as hospitality. He sees hospitality as a method of
eliminating imbalance of power, which is essential in the ending of cruelty. While kindness may play
a role in showing hospitality, there is much more to being hospitable. Showing hospitality to a person
is to treat them with respect, cordiality, and sincerity. It is the recognition that people exist not only
as a means, but as an end. To someone whose self-respect and dignity have been crushed, hospitality
from another person can have rehabilitative effects. Hospitality can restore a person’s humanity,
dignity and sense of self-worth. It can give them the strength they lacked to fight against cruelty. For
these reasons Hallie claims that, in fact, hospitality is the opposite of cruelty.
To reiterate, not all opposites may be as concrete as the opposite of left, or the opposite of
black. While many may have differing opinions on the opposite of cruelty, I doubtlessly believe that
Hallie is veracious in saying it is hospitality. Kindness alone would certainly never harm a person’s
self-respect; however it does not have the same effect as hospitality. Cruelty is nothing short of
dehumanization, it is the elimination of a person’s self-respect and dignity. Hospitality is the
elimination of imbalance of power, and is likewise the restoration of the previously mentioned
human traits.
References
1
Philip P. Hallie, “From Cruelty to Goodness,” in Keith W. Krasemann, ed., Quest for Goodness (Acton:
Copley Publishing, 2011), 28-41.
2
Elie Wiesel and Marion Wiesel, Night (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, a Division of Farrar, Straus and
Giroux, 2006), 45.
3
Ibid., p. 89.
4
Immanuel Kant, “Respect for Persons,” in Keith W. Krasemann, ed., Quest for Goodness (Acton:
Copley Publishing, 2011), 69-73.
118
Effect of Resource Indulgence on Aquatic Vascular Plants: A Closer Study of Lemna minor
by Ashley Padavonia
(Biology 1152)
Abstract
lants make up a vast majority of life on planet Earth and have been a very successful kingdom
since their first appearance 450 million years ago. There are many different species that grow
rapidly with various adaptations to be successful in their environments. We decided to test the
growth rate and life span of Lemna minor, an aquatic vascular plant that produces mostly asexually,
and created an experimental group of Lemna plants that received a fertilizer treatment. We also
decided to test the effect of CO2 concentration on Lemna due to the recent concerns on how much
harm the rising CO2 levels are causing in the biosphere. The Lemna experimental group with
fertilizer treatment exhibited the least growth rate as compared to the control group and CO2 seemed
to have little significant effect on the Lemna minor. Further study needs to be conducted in order to
definitively state that Lemna benefits negatively from fertilizer treatment or has an increased
resistance to rising CO2 levels.
P
Keywords: Lemna minor, population growth, fertilizer, CO2 levels, nutrient availability
Introduction
Lemna minor, also known as duckweed, is a successful aquatic vascular plant species that is
found in fresh water ponds throughout North America, Africa, Asia, and Europe. Like many other
plants, Lemna minor requires specific nutrients and while it is successful, it must compete with
numerous other plants as well as animals in order to survive in its environment and has evolved into
a highly competitive species. Some of the earliest experiments with duckweed examined its
competitive nature and in a study in 1969 comparing Lemna minor with algae and phytoplankton it
was discovered that, “Observations made of laboratory cultures and field populations of aquatic
weeds and filamentous green algae… have confirmed that antagonistic activity exists between such
populations when aquatic weeds or filamentous green algae are nitrogen-limited” (Fitzgerald 1969).
When the duckweed was in an environment with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and algae, two of its top
competitors, the duckweed attempted to absorb as much nitrogen as possible in order to significantly
increase reproduction and reduce competition. As a result the population of the bacteria and the
filamentous algae suffered severely. Ecologists use population growth models in order to assess a
particular plant species and determine how it interacts with the environment. Generally, when
resources are limited and the competition is fierce, one species thrives and others suffer negatively
and in extreme cases can become extinct from a habitat. The growth curve of the duckweed can be
described as exponential because its population nearly doubles over time due to its great ability to
beat its competitors. In a recent study of vascular epiphytes, non-parasitic plants that grow on their
hosts, their ability to retrieve nutrients in dilute as well as in concentrated solutions, “Vascular
epiphytes possess effective mechanisms to take up potassium from both highly diluted and highly
concentrated solutions, enabling the plant to incorporate this nutrient element quickly and almost
quantitatively” (Winkler et. al 2010). In their conclusion, Winkler and Zotz applied their findings to
other nutrients that epiphytes required, such as CO2 and sunlight, as well as other highly adapted
plants such as “aquatic weeds”. In an article written by Brian Moss of the University of Liverpool the
effects of atmospheric changes on plant growth due to global warming are discussed. Plants take in
CO2 required for survival through openings in the leaf called stomata, which close when too much
119
CO2 is present in the atmosphere (Moss 2010). In a sense, the effect of increased CO2 has a similar
effect on plants as increased oxygen does to humans. A slight increase may foster productivity in
growth but too much of an increase can cause a plant to become malnourished and suffocate.
Plenty of research has already been done on how duckweed handles nutrient deprivation but
it remains to be seen how this plant handles and excess. In order to test how Lemna minor would fare
in an environment with enriched nutrients, we conducted an experiment in which some duckweed
plants received excess CO2 and some received excess CO2 and water. Because of Lemna minor’s
adaptable nature I hypothesize that an enriched atmosphere of CO2 and fertilizer treatment, will cause
a marked increase in the growth of the duckweed exposed to each treatment and that plants that are
exposed only to a fertilizer treatment will outperform the plants with no fertilizer and those that are
only exposed to increased CO2 levels.
Materials and Methods
In order to test the two points of our hypothesis we created two experimental groups from the
Lemna minor plant fronds (duckweed). One group was exposed only to enriched CO2 levels and the
other was exposed to enriched CO2 as well as the fertilizer treatment. A group of lemna that was not
given fertilizer was kept at normal atmospheric CO2 levels in order to function as out control group.
Each experimental group was prepared by placing approximately three duckweed fronds into test
tubes fifteen cm long in length. The tubes were then filled with filtered pond water, from a pond on
site where Lemna was known to grow, and each sample was labeled. Next, half of the duckweed
frond tubes were given the liquid fertilizer treatment diluted to 140 ppm. We decided to test each
group’s progress in an environmental chamber to eliminate the appearance of unwanted variables.
Both experimental groups were exposed to an enhanced CO2 atmosphere level of 800ppm. Each was
exposed to a light level of 8000 lumens/m2 for duration of twelve hours, along with twelve hours of
darkness, for approximately two weeks. The temperature during light exposure was maintained at
25°C, and during darkness at 23°C. At the end of the duration, each test tube’s frond count was
counted and the experimental groups were compared by plotting the mean number of fronds for each
group and then calculating the average maximal growth rate to determine if there was indeed an
increase in the experimental group that had the fertilizer treatment.
Results
Following the described procedure, we tested three experimental groups, Lemna with
fertilizer treatment, Lemna in an enriched CO2 environment, and Lemna with fertilizer treatment and
in an enriched CO2 environment, along with a control group with no treatments. In the control group,
the greatest number of fronds occurred on day 10 with an average of 6.2 per test tube. The greatest
amount of growth was occurred between days 7 and 8 when the mean number of fronds jumped from
4 to 5.3 and death did not occur until day 13 which can be observed in the population growth curves
in Figure 1. The intrinsic rate of growth for this population was calculated to be 0.081. When
comparing the control with the Lemna fronds that received fertilizer treatment, the control group
outperformed significantly which can be observed through Figure 1. In the Lemna with the fertilizer
treatment the greatest amount of growth was observed between days 2 and 3 when the mean number
of fronds went from 3.0 to 3.3 and by day 6 a decrease in the amount of fronds began to occur. The
intrinsic rate of growth was calculated to be 0.048. The pH of the fertilized pond water was taken and
there was no significant change from the untreated pond water.
The experimental Lemna group that received CO2 performed identically to the control group
that received no treatments. The greatest amount of growth was observed between days 7 and 8 when
the mean number of fronds also grew from 4 to 5.3. The intrinsic growth rate was calculated to be the
same, 0.081, and when comparing Figure 1 and Figure 2, the population curves are also identical.
The Lemna group that received the fertilizer and CO2 treatments performed identically to the Lemna
that received just fertilizer treatments and also had an intrinsic rate of growth of 0.048. At the end of
the experiment, a significant amount of algae was observed in all tubes that contained fertilizer.
120
Discussion
The proposed hypothesis was that the Lemna minor group with increased CO2 treatments as
well as fertilizer treatment would show the largest growth rate and that the experimental group that
received only CO2 and the control group would show the poorest growth rate. The results from the
experiment did not support the hypothesis. The control group seemed to perform the best because it
had the highest intrinsic growth rate and death was not observed until day 13. The Lemna that
received the fertilizer treatments actually showed the least amount of growth and exhibited frond
death as early as day 6 which seems inconsistent with fertilization of similar plants. However, the
fertilizer treatments seemed to facilitate the unforeseen growth of aquatic algae in the test tubes. As
observed in Fitzgerald’s study with algae and aquatic weeds, the algae and Lemna minor grew in a
limited space, and even though fertilizer was provided, a competition still arouse between the two
organisms, and the Lemna became malnourished (Fitzgerald 1969). A possible change in procedure
to improve future results would be the use of distilled water, instead of the use of filtered pond water,
to eliminate the possibility of microorganisms competing for nutrients in the experimental Lemna
systems.
The enriched CO2 environment of 800 ppm seemed to have no effect at all on the growth of
the Lemna populations even though it was almost double the control value of 450 ppm. These results
also do not support the hypothesis. According to the study conducted by Brian Moss that appeared in
Freshwater Biology, a significant increase in CO2 may increase growth initially in aquatic species but
after long term increased exposure would affect the plant detrimentally. Based on these previous
experiments, it is determined that the increased concentration of CO2 was not significant enough to
have a pronounced effect on the population growth of Lemna minor. These results show that Lemna
minor must have an increased tolerance to excess CO2 environments. Although this discovery
requires further study, future findings could be useful in the field of agronomy. Perhaps these genes
can be isolated from the Lemna minor plants and applied to other plant genera in order to increase
resistance in plants that are very susceptible to the increased presence of CO2 in our atmosphere
today.
Literature Cited
Fitzgerald, George P. (1969). Some Factors in the Competition or Antagonism Among Bacteria,
Algae, and Aquatic Weeds. Journal of Phycology 69: 351-359.
Moss, Brian. 2010. Climate change, nutrient pollution and the bargain of Dr. Faustus. Freshwater
Biology 55: 175-187.
Winkler, Uwe, Zotz, G. 2010. ‘And then there were three’: highly efficient uptake of potassium by
foliar trichomes of epiphytic bromeliads. Annals of Botany 106: 421-427.
121
Figure 1
Fi
Figure 2
122
A Humorous Lesson
by Becky Reichel
(Honors Chemistry 1551)
T
hroughout history, humanity has reached for and fallen short of an explanation for the
physical phenomena of life- even if each stretch seems to bring us a little closer to the truth.
We have such patterns in most fields of science, including medical practice and pathology.
For centuries, spirits and gods were to blame for disease, and the cures were logically sought along
the same lines, but as we progressed, we began to look at our actions as having a more direct affect
on our own health. It was Hippocrates who gave the medical world one big push forward with his use
of observation and his thorough, systematic examinations and diagnoses. But while he is commonly
known as the “Father of Medicine,” like all major human advancements, his pathology did not quite
encapsulate the truth.
One of Hippocrates’ big contributions to the medical sciences was the determination that it
was not, in fact, spirits or broken taboos that brought about illness, but something chemical. Where
he went wrong, however, lies in the details of his not-quite-theories, and the way others built upon
them. During the Age of Pericles, Hippocrates was the one to introduce humoral pathology, or the
belief that illness and other ailments were caused by in imbalance of chemicals in the body,
according to Fielding Hudson Garrison in his work, An Introduction to the History of Medicine.
Some Greek beliefs of the time pointed to four elements (water, fire, earth and air) as making up the
world and the humors mimicked this distribution, being categorized as four main humors of which
too much or too little of one or the other could cause nearly any ailment not directly attributable to
some obvious injury. Though some continued to believe spirits could unbalance the humors, the
actual cause of whatever ailment inflicted was accepted to be due to the humors themselves, and the
system spread through the western world.
Despite regional differences in other beliefs and applications, it was widely accepted that the
humors were four fluids, which the body contained, classified as blood, phlegm, black bile and
yellow bile. Blood and phlegm (mucus) are just as well known today, though not as humors. Yellow
bile was likely the bile vomited by fasting patients, visible when no food was present to obscure it.
Black bile was known as the “massive foul-smelling black loose stools” produced in the event of
some diseases and the consumption of various herbs, including the toxic hellebore, according to
Michele Fornaro, Nicoletta Clementi and Panataleo Fornaro’s “Medicine and Psychiatry in Western
Culture.” Yellow and black bile stood as opposites, black being seen as the cause of melancholia and
yellow, of mania, as well as, cholera. In the face of this, it is not a surprise that black bile was also
known as the melancholic humor, and yellow bile as choleric. As for the other two humors, blood
was also called the sanguine humor, while phlegm received the less original moniker, phlegmatic.
These four bodily fluids were linked to both psychological and physical ailments or conditions, and
were assumed to be influenced by dietary or environmental factors.
According to Hippocrates, it was a person’s physical and mental activity, as well as their diet
and environment, which imbalanced the humors within a body, not insufficient worship of the
sovereign deities. In fact, Helen Christopoulou-Aletra and Niki Papavramidou’s “Methods Used by
Hippocratic Physicians for Weight Reduction” reveals that when treating a patient, they took into
account the effect of “the profession of the patient, the amount of body exercise and athletic
endeavors, walking, sleeping, sexual activity, baths, steam baths, […] and the feelings of the patient”
on the humors, seeing the connection between some activities (or lack of activity) and disease, and
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then chalking it up as a factor of imbalance. Other environmental variables such as the climate were
also commonly known to imbalance the humors or to weaken a person’s resistance to illness. One
such climate thought of as particularly treacherous was any that had hot, damp summers and cold
winters. Hippocrates thought people in such climates were “languid, moist, and generally ‘cowardly’
in their souls” while cold climates fostered “extremely thin persons with sinewy, firm flesh”
(Christopoulou-Aletra 514). The cold and dry appeared to lessen the overall amount of fluid in the
body, leading to a total humor deficiency that supposedly caused this extreme thinness. Likewise, a
surplus of all humors led to obesity, in the eyes of those who followed the humoral pathology. Yet,
though the humors seemed to coincide with different combinations of hot, cold, dry, and wet, and
thus could be increased or decreased by exposure to their own or their opposite characteristics, as in
the example of cold climates discussed above, the categorization of what was hot, dry, cold, or wet
could be quite complicated, if not seen for their effects, rather than on their own worth. As seen in
Daniel L. Heiple’s “Renaissance Medical Psychology in ‘Don Quijote’” for Tulane University, such
things as lack of sleep and excessive studying were thought to dry out the body and mind, increasing
the amount of the melancholic humor, black bile. This can be explained with the simple assertion that
an increase of black bile was believed to cause a depression and spiral into madness which, in fact,
could be prompted or worsened by lack of sleep or the stress which usually causes or is brought
about by excessive studying. Much of the interactions of humors with the world and the
categorization of foods, behaviors, and regions as hot, cold, moist, or dry was based on after-the-fact
correlation, and later used to semi-accurately predict possible ailments without understanding the real
middleman, providing what seemed like proof of the humors to the people of the time.
There were other reasons to believe in the humors and their influence. Treatments based on
the humors ranged from a change in behavior and diet, to the “bleeding, blistering, purging,
vomiting, and sweating” the pathology is most known for today and in John Duffy’s From Humors to
Medical Science. Yet, nearly every treatment had some noticeable effect, even if not an intended, or
beneficial one. It is when a curative has no effect, for good or ill, that a patient truly begins to lose
hope in its power, after all, and every time the physicians lucked into the use of something like St.
John’s Wort (which has potential antidepressant properties) to combat a surplus of melancholic,
black bile, the practice gained more plausibility. Hippocrates’ careful and systematic observations of
his clients, and the passing on of this process, certainly didn’t hinder the humoral pathology’s spread,
either. Even popular literature towards the end of the humors’ reign still incorporated the humors’
effects, as seen quite obviously when the main character of Don Quijote regained sanity twice
through extensive bleeding from battlefield wounds, reinforcing the healing power of humors to the
very end (Heiple). Truthfully, the power of the humors lay in their explanation of the link between
behavior and disease; they were not correct, but they allowed physicians to encourage behaviors and
lifestyles that they saw correlated with good health with a persuasive, non-spiritual explanation of
why and how. And that was a step forward in itself.
Eventually, the sun would set on humoral pathology’s reign, but not until the late seventeenth
and early eighteenth century would the last rays begin to dim. Most educated medical practitioners
traded in the reigning humoral pathology in exchange for the iatrophysical and iatrochemical
theories, which, respectively saw the body as “a machine motivated by ‘life force’ circulating
through the nerves” or as a system of acids and alkalis, of which disease was the result of an
abnormal reaction (Duffy 13,14). Yet these theories only dealt the deathblow to humors’ prominence
in professional circles, with more attractive explanations for disease. The silent killers of humoral
pathology would be the invention of microscopes and the discovery of microorganisms by Robert
Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek during the medical renaissance, published in Micrographia in
1665. Leeuwenhoek went on to observe and report the discoveries of microscopic protozoa and
bacteria, and this quiet assassin of the humors bided its time for nearly two centuries, until in the
1870’s, “pathogenic bacteria were identified as the aetiological agents of infectious diseases” by
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Louis Pasteur in his famous germ theory of disease, according to Alfred Tauber’s “Metchnikoff and
the Phagocytosis Theory.” The discovery that microorganisms could actually cause disease without a
surplus of this or a deficiency of that left humors dead in the water, even if there were those who
would fight it, such as a “Professor Bastian” who wrote a letter to IN NATURE magazine stating that
“such germs when present would be sure to go on increasing until they brought about the death of
their host,” since the immune system was not yet known, in the November issue of 1871. Granted, a
more detailed knowledge of human anatomy was likely helpful as well; after all, if there was meant
to be a surplus or deficiency of black bile at any time in a human’s cycle, it’d be difficult to explain
why most bodies simply didn’t have any. Overall, however, the discovery of bacteria and the late
arrival of the germ theory disproved the influence of humors on the body for future medical
practitioners and researchers, even if their influence on medical history would linger forever.
References
1. Clementi, Nicolleta; Michele Fornaro; Pantaleo Fornaro. “Medicine and psychiatry in Western
Culture: Ancient Greek Myths and Modern Prejudices.” Annals of General Psychiatry. (2009)
Annals of General Psychology archive. Web. 28 October 2013.
2. Garrison, Fielding Hudson. An Introduction to the History of Medicine C. 2. W.B. Saunders
Company, 1921. Google Scholar. Web. 28 October 2013.
3. Bastian. “Letters to the Editor.” Nature 5. 109. (1871): 84. Nature archive. Web. 28 October
2013.
4. Tauber, Alfred I. “Netchnikorr and the Phagocytosis Theory.” Nature Review Molecular Cell
Biology 4. (November 2003): 897-901. Nature reviews archive. Web. 28 October 2013.
5. Gest H. “The discovery of microorganisms by Robert Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek,
fellows of the Royal Society.” Notes Rec R Soc Lond. 58. (2004): 187-201. Notes and Records of
the Royal Society archive. Web. 28 October 2013.
6. Christopoulou-Aletra, Helen; Niki Papavramidou. “Methods Used by the Hippocratic Physicians
for Weight Reduction.” World Journal of Surgery. 28. (2004): 513-517. Google Scholar. Web.
28 October 2013.
7. Heiple, Daniel L. “Renaissance Medical Psychology in ‘Don Quijote.’” Ideologies and Literature
2. 9. (1979): 65-71.
8. Duffy, John. From Humors to Medical Science. The University of Illinois Press, 1993. Google
Scholar. Web. 28 October 2013.
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Video Games as an Art Form
by Michael Robles
(English 1102)
E
very form of art originates from entertainment. Paintings were meant to decorate a room,
music filled the void with appeasing melodies, literature engaged readers intellectually, and
movies turn what lies in our imagination into a tangible reality. Of course, there are a plethora
of variations on each of these categories, but all of these mediums have been solidified throughout
the ages as forms of artistic expression. However, a relative newcomer to the world of entertainment,
the video game, has not yet been recognized as worthy enough to take its place in the world of art.
The problem arises when video game developers try to express their artistic vision, but the general
public remains almost completely oblivious to their existence. In essence, video games cannot prove
themselves because no one is listening.
Nevertheless, video games should be promoted as a valid form of artistic expression because
of the potential they have to creatively express an idea that no other form of media can claim to
accomplish. This uniqueness is found in the video game's direct interaction with the observer. If
academically studied, games can be as intellectually beneficial as the analysis of a renowned movie
or a legendary piece of literature. A way to promote video games as art is to have increased positive
coverage of video games by the public. A possible method of doing so could include introducing
games in libraries, or perhaps even having interactive exhibits at museums dedicated to artistry. In
essence, the only way to experience a game is to become directly involved with it. The more people
that can experience what video games have to offer, the more they can understand their artistic value.
Unfortunately, the virtual world of video games is only a reality to a few. In his article titled
“Is it Art?”, John Lanchester states that “books, films, TV, dance, theatre, music, painting,
photography…are all part of our current cultural discourse. Video games aren’t” (18). Even if a
person does not partake in or even enjoy one of these artistic subjects, at least he or she knows that
the artistic medium exists. Lanchester explains this situation as the “cultural segregation” of video
games which have such a “clean-cut division between the audience and non-audience” (18). As one
might expect, it will prove difficult for someone to value something that is unknown to him or her.
Additionally, the public’s exposure to video games in the media often only involve a connection
between violent video games and various shooting tragedies that occur throughout a nation. If this is
a person’s only knowledge of video games, it becomes very easy to dismiss video games as a
negative influence and a waste of time.
Beyond the separation between those who do and do not play video games, the different
types of games available even divide the gaming populace. There are games that are made to
capitalize on its “fun factor,” where most of the developer’s effort is concentrated on the gameplay
mechanics. Other developers sacrifice gameplay to provide a graphically impressive experience, but
at the cost of its classification as a “video game.” To address this problem, it must be made clear that
not all video games should be considered as art. Ernest W. Adams, in his article titled “Will
Computer Games Ever be a Legitimate Art Form?,” is quick to state that “the vast majority of what
the game industry does is not art, but popular culture” (69) and that most games are created for pure
entertainment. However, Adams qualifies his statement by explaining that film, which is a
recognized art form, is also usually not art. He claims that the video game medium as a whole, just
like film, has the ability to be an art form due to the qualities it shares with other forms of art (70).
Before video games can be promoted as art, the argument must be made that video games
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have the attributes to qualify them as an art form. However, the difficulty arises in finding succinct
definition of art. To obtain a greater understanding of art itself, Adams offers a description of the
evolution of art. He proposes that art was initially meant to “portray a person or scene or object” but
in this current generation, art serves “as an expression of the artist’s thoughts” (68). While video
games are certainly not a product of one person, much like movies, there are “directors” of games
that oversee a game’s development. Relatively famous developers in the gaming world would
include Ken Levine (Bioshock), Peter Molyneux (Fable), and Jade Raymond (Assassin’s Creed). In
an article published in the journal At the Interface/Probing the Boundaries, Jef Folkerts suggests a
distinction between what is truly artistic and what is simply aesthetic. The aesthetic quality of
something only involves its outward experience, while an object’s artistic properties involve its
content (103). Folkerts’ asserts that while all art has an aesthetic component, “art does not have to be
beautiful” (102), but that it is the content of a medium that makes it art. It is the content that
distinguishes video games from other games such as football or blackjack, as video games actually
have the potential for literary content.
While video games of the current-generation boast life-like graphical engines that often
surpass any visual effects present in movies, it is not the only aspect of games that define them as an
artistic medium. Most, if not all video games have music uniquely orchestrated for them and could be
analyzed completely on its own as a form of musical art. What differentiates a game from its closest
relation, film, and other forms of art is its completely interactive form of narrative. When we are
truly part of the “artistic experience” in film or literature we constantly associate meaning to what is
presented in the movie or book. A film or piece of literature ceases to become art when “what we see
is what we get” (Folkerts 103) where there is no substance beyond the medium’s outward
appearance. By making the player directly involved with the narrative, even to the point where the
player has the ability to shape it into his or her own unique experience, the video game effectively
evokes this meta-reflexive nature of our minds. This ability of the video game to allow us to
constantly interpret in-game events and associate meaning to them is what can define it as art, and
the distinguishing factor of video games is that the observer has direct influence over the narrative.
This level of interactivity would ultimately lead to a greater understanding of any artistic message
that is present in the video game.
The ambiguity of art has also caused some to believe that the original purpose of a game
undermines it as a literary art form. Acclaimed film critic Roger Ebert claims that game cease to
become art because “one obvious difference between art and games is that you can win a game”.
Commenting on the state of narrative of video games Ebert continues with the claim that video
games currently “exhibit prose on the level of a wordy fortune cookie.” However, when he addresses
a counterargument made in a presentation, he clearly states that “the three games she chooses as
examples do not raise my hopes for a video game that will deserve my attention long enough to play
it.” Unfortunately, Ebert falls into the same logical trap as many critics of video games do. According
to Lanchester, “The other way in which games might converge on art is through the beauty and detail
of their imagined worlds, combined with the freedom they give the player to wander around in them”
(20). In essence, video games must be played to realize the potential of the medium. Games cannot
be simply “observed” like a film or a sculpture or painting.
An observation Lanchester makes is that what undermines the validity of video games to
non-gamers is the difficulty of learning the game mechanics. He proposes that “the whole package of
conventions and codes and how-tos which become second nature to video-game players, but which
strike non-gamers as arbitrary and confining and a little bit stupid” (19). It is important to point out
that artistry is often accompanied by difficulty. The various works of Shakespeare are often offputting to students because of the difficulty of the language. It takes time and patience to understand
how Shakespeare is read before one can understand his literary meaning. The same can be said of a
video game, once the gamer can figure out how the game is played, then he or she will be able to
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delve deeper into any meaning present in either the gameplay or narrative.
One common theme among all of the articles reviewed for this essay is that the current
development of video games makes it difficult for anyone to consider them an art form. The most
popular games focus almost purely on the aesthetic qualities, making sacrifices in story and narrative
for improvements in graphics and gameplay instead of finding the perfect balance between them.
Like almost everything in society, the video games industry is a business first, and the games that sell
the most are those based purely on fun. According to sales statistics provided by VG Charts, the top
fifty of the best-video games of all time are all multiplayer-centric, including games such as Call of
Duty, Grand Theft Auto and Super Smash Bros (Database). That is not to say that these games such
as Call of Duty or Grand Theft Auto have no place in society, but if the general public can start
recognizing games as an art form, then the developers that do try to focus on the balance between
gameplay and narrative will be rewarded. As a result, the games industry may shift towards
providing an enriching experience to the player because the balance will prove to be much more
satisfying for those looking to find an alternate means of deriving meaning in society.
Nevertheless, there are games out there that are worthy enough to earn the distinction of
being art, and as technology advances, developers are able to create richly detailed creative worlds
that can further immerse the player. However, these games are virtually nonexistent to the average
citizen. Consequently, it is imperative that video games be promoted as a form of artistic expression
because if the immeasurable benefits it could bring to our society. Even now, there are many
connections between games and literature. Spec Ops: the Line, for example, is a third-person shooter
which involves a three-man squad infiltrating a conflict somewhere in the Middle-East. However,
Spec Ops does not fall into the trap of the glorifying of war as many shooters do. Instead it focuses
on the brutality that arises and lets the player choose whether or not to violently engage in certain
situations, dismissing any notion of a “black and white” morality system that games so often
implement. The game also shares strong connections with the novel Heart of Darkness by Joseph
Conrad by its narrative and resounding themes. Another example would be Valve’s Half-Life 2
which is clearly inspired by George Orwell’s 1984 setting of an overwhelmingly oppressive central
government. If educators had a chance of recognizing the literary elements of games, they could
provide connections to the texts that they are teaching students. The interactivity level will let
students develop a greater understanding of difficult themes since they are directly involved in how
the story progresses. This interactive experience could be applied to a more general audience, and it
could improve society as we have the potential to learn very complex themes in a relatively simple
manner. Perhaps most importantly, games with an “artistic experience” will provoke thought, much
like the literary and cinematic masterpieces throughout history, but it will do so using its unique
quality of interactivity.
It will take an undoubted lengthy amount of time to change the mindset of any culture, but a
greater amount of exposure is needed before any significant change can occur. A possible method in
doing this is to make video games free and accessible. Libraries are a great resource of free
knowledge, and introducing certain video games in this system will expose this medium to a greater
amount of people who could not financially afford video games. Currently “…15% of all libraries
now check out video games to anyone with a library card” and in those libraries even “books are
being checked out at a rate that exceeds what it was before gamers arrived” (Navarrette). This could
be attributed to the fact that gamers could find literary connections to games present in the library
and it piques their interest in a multitude of related subjects. Additionally, there could be interactive
exhibits that focus on a video game’s artistic significance along with their technological prowess.
The idea of art is an indispensable aspect of our society. It allows the general public to grow
intellectually as we strive to make sense of life and all of its facets. If video games were to be
promoted as an art form, then the public will only stand to reap its aforementioned artistic benefits.
After we can establish that video games are art, we can see unique aspect of interactivity that it
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brings to the artistic table. Should this happen, all that remains to be done is the positive exposure of
the medium. With enough time and exposure to this new medium, there may be a day when Bioware,
a video game developer whose games focus on the element of choice, will take its place among Bach,
Benigni, Byron, and Bacon. Perhaps the day video games become truly significant in society is when
it is acceptable for students to cite them.
Works Cited
Adams, Ernest W. “Will Computer Games Ever Be a Legitimate Art Form.” Journal of Media
Practice 7.1 (2006): 67-77. Communication and Mass Media Complete. Web. 15 Apr. 2014.
Ebert, Roger. “Video Games Can Never Be Art.” Roger Ebert’s Journal. Ebert Digital LLC, 16 Apr.
2010. Web. 14 Apr. 2014.
Folkerts, Jef. “Playing Games as an Art Experience: How Videogames Produce Meaning through
Narrative and Play.” At the Interface/Probing the Boundaries 69 (2010): 99-117.
Communication and Mass Media Complete. Web. 15 Apr. 2014.
“Game Database.” VG Chartz. VG Chartz Ltd., 2014. Web. 07 May 2014.
Lanchester, John. “Is It Art?” London Review of Books 31.1 (2009): 18-20. London Review of Books.
LRB Limited, 1 Jan. 2009. Web. 7 May 2014.
Navarrette, Ruben. “Do Video Games Belong in Libraries?” CNN. Cable News Network, 15 Aug.
2013. Web. 07 May 2014.
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The 1968 Riots: Protesting the Democratic Convention
by Dina Rudenya
(English 1102)
T
he 1960’s were a decade full of turmoil and restlessness. The feminist movement, Vietnam
War, the draft, racial riots, and the civil rights movement had sparked much discontent among
Americans, leading to some of the most violent behavior since World War II. Against this
unstable background, the Democratic Party’s National Convention in Chicago in August of 1968 had
served as a catalyst in the dangerous rioting of the people. The intended purpose of this event was for
fellow Democrats to choose a presidential candidate and decide on what positions the party should
hold regarding the most controversial issues of the day (McGowen 1). However, due to the pressing
matters of the decade, the people of Chicago had hoped to use the Convention to protest the Vietnam
war, the military draft, and a government who seemed to pay no attention to the needs of the people.
If not for the Democratic Convention and Mayor Richard Daley’s desire for political power, the
Chicago riots in August of 1968 could have been either prevented or better controlled by the local
government.
Before the Democratic Convention of 1968, Chicago already had a fairly recent history of
rioting. The years of 1919 and 1966 had both been a difficult time for Chicago’s black districts.
These riots were associated with residential and social segregation that had invisibly divided Chicago
into various racial districts, and their boundaries were not meant to be crossed. Martin Luther King’s
arrival in Chicago to help promote the civil rights movement in 1966, followed by his assassination
in 1968, had caused a series of intense riots that had left black Chicago homes burned and raided,
while their owners were being harassed and killed (Bailey). These troublesome events had put other
cities ahead of Chicago on President Johnson’s list of favorable Convention-hosting cities, and
Mayor Richard Daley saw this as a negative reflection on his political status (Farber 115).
In order to host the Democratic Convention and convey its symbolism of power to Chicago,
Daley traveled to Washington D.C. on October 8th of 1967 to try to gain President Johnson’s
approval. Hosting the convention would mean portraying an elevated political status and making
millions of dollars from the jobs it would bring to the city. In Washington, Daley attempted to
convince Johnson that if the Convention was not hosted in Chicago, he might potentially lose Illinois
in the upcoming presidential election. At the time, Houston was favored above Chicago as a
convention city, but Daley claimed that hosting it there would be useless since Texas was already
supporting Johnson in the election (Farber 116). These reasons were apparently logical to the
president, because Chicago was chosen to host the Convention, and Richard Daley was looking
forward to showing off “Chicago as the number one convention city” (Farber 116). The event was to
be held in August of 1968. However, no one could predict the drastic chain of events it would coax
out of the people of Chicago.
The Convention riots started out as protests against the many controversial issues that would
be decided upon during the Democratic Convention. The major problem was the United States’
involvement in the Vietnam War. Since the early 1960s, government officials had been promising
Americans that even though U.S. involvement in Vietnam was necessary, it would be very limited
and brief. By the end of 1967, over 500,000 troops had been sent to Vietnam. (McGowen 8). It was
becoming evident that U.S. troops would be continuously sent overseas to fight the battle of another
country.
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Another major problem related to Vietnam occurred in January of 1968, which marked the
beginning of the first day of Tet on the Vietnamese calendar. The North Vietnamese Army and the
Vietcong surrounded Khe Sanh in South Vietnam, and while all the attention was focused there, the
Northern Vietnamese Army and Vietcong attacked major cities in South Vietnam, including U.S. air
and military bases (McGowen 14). While this was happening, Americans were being assured by their
government that the U.S. was “close to achieving its goals” in Vietnam (McGowen 14). Soon, it
became clear that the war was not going as planned, and the military involvement was not going to
be as limited and brief as expected. American citizens began to understand that their own
government was not being 100% truthful with them. With so much unrest within the country, it
seemed like United States was warring both at home and overseas (McGowen 15).
Due to its vast involvement in the war, United States was experiencing a growing need for
troops. In order to fulfill this need, the selective service, or draft, escalated. When a young man
turned 18, he was required to register with the government, and if selected, had to serve at least 2
years in the military (McGowen 14). Along with protesting America’s involvement in another
country’s affairs, the riots of 1968 were also opposing the mandatory draft that would force
Americans to participate in a war they did not support. At this point, the civil rights movement that
had been supported by Martin Luther King had evolved from ending racial segregation to ending
America’s involvement in Vietnam’s problems (McGowen 20).
Due to these issues, the Democratic Convention appeared to be taking place in two different
places. Inside the convention center, politicians would meet, make speeches, cast votes, and be
interviewed by the media to relay the events to the public. However, outside of the convention, the
protesters gathered to oppose the decisions the delegates would make inside the convention:
delegates that did not seem to truly represent the needs of the people (McGowen 4).
Despite the rioting going on outside, Richard Daley attempted to portray himself as
maintaining full control of the city. Armed with 12,000 police officers, Daley assured the convention
delegates that everything would go smoothly (Simon). However, that was not the case. The riots
escalated, and the rioters were seriously hurt. Ira Jaffe and Vivian Stovall were two protesters who
formed a human chain in Grant Park when the police showed up to chase them away. “The police
would move in with clubs and tear gas. We were being kicked, pulled apart, and some very racial
statements being made” (Simon). That does not represent a city under control. But in a larger context,
it also does not represent a country with a government that makes the decisions it does in the best
interest of the people.
In his book titled “No One Was Killed”, John Schultz stated that Mayor Daley and the police
force attempted to block the protest “not only because it represented a mythic nightmare for those
who control large material intentions and directions of this country, but because they know the
protest-revolt to be a real and future threat to them” (Shultz 3). The protesters may have been
handled differently, but eventually they had to be treated as a growing threat to those who hold any
political power. It is unfortunate that circumstances had to be so violent for the people to be further
encouraged to voice their oppositions to the government’s decisions, but then again, when does
anyone in power respond well to being opposed? Being attacked with tear gas, mace, clubs appeared
like a dust storm from the convention center where the delegates were holding their meetings
(Frank). The convention that Daley had desired to host in order to boost his political status had
turned into a reason for the people in Chicago to speak out against the government in the hopes that
they would be heard.
When Daley decided that the voices of protest and discontent had grown much too loud, he
decided to prove to the delegates that he was still the king of his city. After Martin Luther’s
assassination, Daley had criticized the city’s police commissioner for being too gentle with the
rioters, and claimed that the police should have been ordered to “shoot to kill” the protesters
(McGowen 35). The only way Daley wanted to deal with the rioters was to put them in their place
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and to show them who’s in control, as opposed to hearing them out and coming to some sort of a
compromise with his own people. Armed with over 6,000 National Guardsmen and even more army
troops, machine guns and rocket launchers were a regular sight to see in the streets of Chicago during
the Convention (McGowen 36).
Protesters attempted to work with the city to keep their demonstrations within legal limits.
They applied for permits to sleep in the city’s parks, but the city denied them and gave the police
reason to use clubs, mace, and tear gas at 11 p.m. to force the protesters out of the parks after curfew
(McGowen 37). Being denied by their city and local government, protesters were encouraged to keep
on with their demonstrations, opposing the Vietnam War, the draft, the Democratic Convention, and
the government in general.
Despite the circumstances, Daley wanted to keep up appearances. It was more important to
him to keep Michigan Avenue free of demonstrators than it was to allow the people in Chicago to
have freedom of speech and assembly. He valued the state of his neighborhoods and parks far more
than he valued “abstract ideas” about national stability and calm (Farber 256). His political outlook
only extended as far as his own city, Chicago. He did not seem to grasp that Chicago was part of a
bigger picture, and that the political status of the country would directly impact it. His beloved city
was not segregated from the rest of the country, and did not reside in its own bubble of safety that
would prevent the decisions of the government from causing turmoil in the streets of Chicago. The
Democratic Convention would not ease the tension, neither would it elevate Daley’s political career
while he attempted to host a Convention with his own people rioting outside in the streets.
So if the Democratic National Convention did not add to Chicago’s political resume due to
the extreme dissent among the people, what did it accomplish? It helped to emphasize the viewpoints
that had served as the foundation in shaping United States. Without freedom of speech and the right
to assemble, all decisions would be made by the government with little or no regard to what the
people want to see their leaders do. Of course, the Democratic Convention did not need to be hosted
in Chicago in order for riots against the war, draft, and government to break out. The demonstrators
simply saw the convention as an opportunity to be heard, since their government had not been
listening to them very well until this point. Having so much media coverage at once because of the
convention allowed the protesters to exclaim “The whole world is watching!” (McGowen 17).
Beginning to see the protesters as a threat to his image of being in control, Richard Daley allowed his
police force to use violence against the protesters. His lust for political power prevented him from
genuinely caring about the welfare of his citizens, as opposed to simply being able to keep those
citizens in line. Without the convention, Daley would have had more time and energy to focus on
Chicago and making his people feel represented instead of planning for an event that would selfishly
serve him well and put more money in his pocket.
Today, riots are still possible, and the extent to which they may escalate is uncertain. There
are many of the same and new issues that could be so controversial as to cause an uprising. Wars,
government involvement in foreign countries, our national debt, abortion, gay marriage, legalizing
certain substances, and other things are capable of causing major discontent. These potential riots
would not be limited to Chicago because the issues mentioned have spread throughout United States
and continue to be a struggle in every state. The government cannot please both sides of the same
issue, but must make compromises to make both sides feel like they have been heard. No one wants
to be ruled by a government that ignores the opinions of the people it governs. Looking back on the
Democratic Convention of 1968 and Richard Daley’s reaction to the protests, political leaders today
can better understand what the general public is capable of when they are not heard. If the convention
had not been hosted in Chicago, the riots would have probably taken place in another convention
city, or they might not have happened at all. Mayor Daley’s politically lustful leadership had helped
to ignite the flames of anger in Chicagoans when the convention was chosen to be hosted there.
History may repeat itself unless humankind can learn from its past mistakes and take precautions in
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their future decisions to prevent disasters as opposed to trying to solve them once they have already
gained momentum.
Works Cited
Bailey, Amy Kate. “Race, Space, and Riots in Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles.” Social Forces
88.3 (2010): 1496+. Academic OneFile. Web. 17 Apr. 2014.
Farber, David. Chicago ’68. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1988. Print.
Frank, Thomas. “The naked and the daft: Norman Mailer’s chronicle of Chicago ’68 points up the
pitiful state of contemporary political commentary.” Artforum International 47.2 (2008):
S9+. Academic OneFile. Web. 16 Apr. 2014.
McGowen, Tom. The 1968 Democratic Convention. Chicago: Scholastic Inc, 2003. Print.
Schultz, John. No One Was Killed. Chicago: Big Table Publishing, 1969. Print.
Simon, Scott. “1968 Chicago Riot Left Mark On Political Protests.” Weekend Edition Saturday
(NPR). (August 2008). Newspaper Source. Web. 16 Apr. 2014.
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Changing Baseball Forever
by Jake Sumeraj
(Honors English 1102)
H
idden in the back rooms of any modern major league baseball franchise are a select few
individuals that are drastically changing the way teams operate. Using numbers and
borderline obsessive tracking of each player’s every move, they see things that elude the
everyday baseball fan. These are the baseball analysts. Although they do the research that can
potentially decide which player becomes the face of the team, these analysts can likely walk the city
streets without a single diehard fan knowing who they are. Baseball analysts get almost zero
publicity. However, their work is clearly visible at any baseball game. A catcher’s decision to call for
a 2-0 curveball to a power hitter, the manager’s choice to continuously play a hitter that’s only
batting 0.238, and a defensive shift to the left that leaves the entire right side of the infield open are
all moves that are the result of research done by analysts. Some of it may make no sense on the
surface, but in a game where slight advantages can give you a huge edge over the opponent, every
little bit counts.
The work done by baseball analysts stems from Bill James, the pioneer of advanced statistics
(“Bill James”). James is the creator of many different ways teams measure player performance,
including runs created (RC). RC is a formula that combines a hitter’s output in numerous individual
offensive statistics to measure how many runs that player contributes to the team. Of course, it is
only theoretical, but the numbers are useful. For example, a team can calculate the Runs Created for
two players that are battling for a spot in the lineup and determine which player would theoretically
help the team produce more runs. This new-age statistic is an example of sabermetrics. Technically
speaking, sabermetrics are complex statistics used to quantify a plethora of baseball situations in
order to reveal things that basic statistics keep hidden. They allow us to see beyond the box scores
and reveal what exactly is going on.
Baseball is a complicated game. A pitcher’s earned run average (ERA) may give an idea of
how dominant he is, but it is horrifically skewed. ERA measures a pitcher’s average number of
earned runs, i.e., runs scored not through an error, given up in a nine inning game. It is as basic as it
gets when it comes to pitching stats, and it’s the most popular. However, ERA does not nearly tell
everything. For example, a pitcher plays his home games at a ballpark with a really short fence in left
field. If a batter hits a home run over the left field fence that would have been caught in any other
ballpark, the pitcher’s ERA still goes up even though the run that scored is a situation of a unique
circumstance. In another ballpark, an identical pitcher allows a batter to hit the exact same fly ball to
left field, except this time it is caught for an out. That pitcher’s ERA is lowered. If the two pitchers
are identical, any variance in ERA is purely a difference of luck and circumstance. In order to level
the playing field, ERA+ comes into play. ERA+ adjusts a pitcher’s basic ERA based on the ballpark
that he is playing at and the league average ERA (“Adjusted ERA+ Definition”). The average ERA+
is set to be at 100, so any pitchers with an ERA+ over 100 are considered to be above average.
Ideally, two identical pitchers playing at different ballparks should have the same ERA+.
Sabermetric stats, like ERA+, allow teams to get a better idea of how valuable a player is in
comparison to others. It is an analyst’s job to use these statistics to find out things that may be of use
to the team. But baseball analysts do much more apart from formula-driven statistics. They work for
hours on end replaying video of a hitter’s every at-bat to find their weaknesses and tendencies. After
viewing hundreds of plate appearances, trends can be seen. An analyst may notice that a hitter likes
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to chase curveballs on the first pitch or is hesitant to swing on anything up in the zone when they are
ahead in the count. Also, it could be clear that a hitter really knows how to crush a specific pitch in a
certain area of the strike zone while they cannot make contact with others. Then, after the hitter
makes contact, the analyst maps out where the ball was hit and what kind of contact it was. If a trend
shows balls being hit more often on the ground to the right side than to the left, it may be beneficial
to shift the infield to the right. After all, there is no use in having a fielder defend a portion of the
infield where the ball is not likely to go. A shift could give the defense an advantage over the hitter;
balls hit in one spot that would normally result in a hit could instead lead to an out. These advantages
add up. Preventing the other team’s offense from producing by using careful analysis could
potentially avoid runs from being scored and, thus, lead to more wins.
An analyst’s work regarding individual players’ results is evident regarding pitching and
defense as well. For pitchers, an analyst could study each of their pitches over time and measure
variances in speeds or degrees of movement. This could show trends that could help predict how
effective the pitcher will be in the future. Defensive analytics could include how much range a fielder
has when fielding their position or how efficient the path an outfielder takes to a fly ball is. There is
no way that simple statistics could tell anything about things like this because all of the common
statistics only give information about outcomes. Sabermetrics give information about efficiency and
ability. Analytics help teams understand more about a player’s skills in each phase of the game.
When putting a team together, baseball analysts can help the franchise run efficiently by
saving money. Using advanced statistics, teams can find players that are not necessarily valued high
by other clubs but theoretically are productive. If a player does not have high value, they will most
likely not require a large contract. This allows teams to fill spots on the roster with players that fly
under the radar but end up playing key roles.
A perfect example of this was the Oakland Athletics 2002 season outlined in Michael
Lewis’s book, Moneyball. Going into that year, the A’s needed to replace three of their key players
through free agency. The only problem was that they could not spend big money on a player with
high market value. To replace the lost offensive production, General Manager Billy Beane used
advanced statistics to find players that were undervalued by other teams. Beane focused on signing
players that got on base in any way or hit for power. Unbelievably, the Athletics ended up winning
103 games, including a 20-game win streak, and easily made the playoffs. Because they focused on
finding bargain players, “the Oakland A’s had paid about half a million dollars per win” (Lewis).
This was incredible because, in contrast, “[t]he most profligate rich franchises…paid nearly $3
million for each win, or more than six times what Oakland paid.” Oakland’s success that year was so
remarkable that Lewis’s book was even made into a major motion picture in 2011 starring Brad Pitt
and Jonah Hill.
Among the key acquisitions that year were Scott Hatteberg and David Justice. Hatteberg, an
injury-prone catcher, was not receiving many offers from teams because of the risk. The Athletics
had an opening at first base and Beane decided that since Hatteberg had a history of getting on base,
he would take a chance and let him learn first base. Because he was not wanted by any other team,
Beane was able to sign him for less than a million dollars (“Oakland Athletics 2002 Salaries”).
Similarly, David Justice was not being pursued by many other teams because he was aging and on
the decline. As a former power hitter, Justice also knew how to draw walks and get on base. In 2002,
he only hit 0.266 but had a whopping on-base percentage of 0.376. Justice signed for $7 million.
Both Hatteberg and Justice signed contracts well under their production value.
The creativity that led to the Athletics’ success in 2002 was sparked by baseball analysis and
sabermetrics. Beane’s ideas at the time were foreign to the baseball community; every decision they
made was scrutinized by the public and media because it seemed so unorthodox. Normally, a team
would just pursue the players that produce the most runs and have direct offensive output. Instead,
Beane decided to create runs through simply getting on base and relying on the probability that some
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of those baserunners would end up scoring. In result, this strategy won the Athletics 103 of 162
games in 2002.
Since the Moneyball year, teams around the league began to alter how they approached the
game. Basically everything changed. Teams began hiring analysts to do intense research in order to
come up with new ideas that would help them stay ahead of the opponent. Sabermetrics came to the
forefront and began to play a role in how teams made player decisions. Simple scouting reports were
not enough anymore, and advanced statistics were finally appreciated. Kevin Towers, the General
Manager of the San Diego Padres, put it this way: “You’re crazy if you are blind to the value of
sabermetrics as a way to supplement scouting reports. There are trends you can see in numbers that
you might not pick up in scouting reports. The organizations that are not open-minded and not
willing to think outside the box are going to be in trouble” (qtd. in Coffey). Towers is correct because
baseball is always evolving. Staying up to date on the newest ideas is key to being able to run a team
efficiently and successfully.
The Boston Red Sox took action pretty quickly after the Athletics’ iconic season. On
November 15, 2002, the Red Sox hired famed baseball analyst Bill James, himself (St. John). In fact,
the Red Sox were so impressed with Billy Beane’s work in Oakland that they tried hiring him just
days after the 2002 season ended. Beane backed out, but Bill James was enough. Just two short
seasons later, the Red Sox won the World Series in 2004 for the first time since 1918. That
championship was not a fluke, too, because the Red Sox won two more World Series championships
in 2007 and 2013. Much of their success has been credited to Bill James and his work. To win the
World Series in 2013, Boston had to rebound from a last place finish in 2012. The offseason that
followed included a restructuring of the roster. Similar to Oakland’s 2002 season, Boston signed a
bunch of players that seemed like they just came off the scrap heap. But once again, the front office’s
pristine work and research led to great success. The Red Sox are a perfect example that using
baseball analysis not only wins games, but it also wins championships.
Analysts are important in the draft, as well. When a team considers which player to select in
any of the 40 rounds of the MLB First Year Player Draft, it comes down to who has the best chance
at being an impact figure in the major leagues at some point. It is difficult to find players that the
general manager, analysts, and scouts can agree on because every player has their strengths and
weaknesses. The players that are taken in the later rounds are especially difficult because they are
always big risks; otherwise, they would not be available at that point in the draft. Scouts go and
visibly get an idea of what a player’s strengths/weaknesses are and put together a scouting report.
Analysts watch a player and find things that may signify potential or future failure. Although these
two sides seem similar, they rarely go hand in hand because the scouts and analysts focus on such
different ideas when evaluating a player.
A player being taken in the draft is selected because he has clear potential to play in the
majors, has an intriguing combination of abilities, or a scout or analyst has a gut feeling about him. In
a 40 round draft, almost all of these players never play in the majors. This improbability of individual
success is so drastic that “[f]ewer than 10% of drafted players spend even a single inning in the big
leagues” (Reiter). Of course, almost all of these players are taken in the first few rounds of the draft.
Very few selections in the latest rounds end up ever paying off at all. Being able to compete yearly is
dependent on drafting well and having players come to the majors from within. Otherwise, a team
will have to spend big money on free agents that are already established as impact players. This is
why drafting well is important. In order to have effective drafts, a team needs scouts and analysts that
know how to make the correct decisions when choosing between players.
One of the greatest drafts of all time was performed by the St. Louis Cardinals in 2009.
Current Astros General Manager and former Cardinals scouting director Jeff Luhnow ran the draft.
The Cardinals had a history of drafting well, but this one topped them all. In 2013, just four short
years after the draft happened, five of St. Louis’s 25 active roster players were acquired in that draft.
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What’s even more remarkable is that these five players were not bench-fillers. All five were vital to
their success that ultimately led to a matchup with the Red Sox in the World Series. This includes:
“second baseman Matt Carpenter, their leadoff hitter and WAR leader; first baseman Matt Adams;
righthander Joe Kelly, who is likely to start Game 3 against Boston; closer Trevor Rosenthal; and
righthander Shelby Miller, a 15-game winner who ranked 10th in the NL in ERA (3.06)…” (Reiter).
Luhnow and his team were able to find successful players in the later rounds, which really separates
this draft from the rest. They did this by using a sleek combination of scouting, analytics, and
following gut feelings that separated individual players from a pool of well over a thousand.
Luhnow’s work throughout his time in St. Louis gained him enough recognition to get hired
as the General Manager of the Houston Astros in December of 2011. He took over a weak team with
an even weaker minor league system and embarked the franchise on a total teardown. Trading almost
every major league asset since for prospects and minor league depth, Luhnow has created arguably
the deepest and most impressive minor league system in all of baseball. In fact, the Astros placed
first overall in ESPN’s annual ranking of all 30 farm systems this year (Law). To improve the major
league roster, Luhnow and the Astros have focused on using analysis to find what works. The men
that hold the front office positions in Houston are overqualified and have titles such as “Director of
Decision Sciences.” The Astros have been so committed to trying to run efficiently during their
rebuild that their 2013 team payroll was less than what some individual players in the league make in
one season. To this point, there has not been progress in the wins/losses category, but many experts
have praised Luhnow for his work and project the Astros to be a powerhouse in the near future. This
is due in part to the front office group that includes some of the smartest figures in all of baseball.
The Astros front office includes graduates of University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, Yale, and
Georgetown, along with a NASA engineer. Apart from being a group of complete baseball nerds, the
Astros have a smart group of people running the show.
Getting a job in baseball is a difficult task. There are so few baseball analysis jobs out there
that the ones that do end up being hired tend to be overqualified. Of course, there is no specific
college major that would best suit a career in baseball so there are multiple paths.
Jeff Luhnow has bachelor degrees in both engineering and economics along with an MBA. In
an interview, Luhnow explained how he was one of the few that were asked to join the industry, so
he did not have to break in at the lower ranks. “I also came in at a high level because I had three
successful careers prior to baseball,” Luhnow says.
Overall, baseball analysis is an extremely difficult career to just break into. There are so
many people that aspire to obtain the same few jobs that it is unreliable to depend on being hired.
Much of the hiring process in baseball is luck and knowing the right people at the right time. Luhnow
believes that the best way to break into baseball is to build connections. “Get to know as many
people in the industry as possible and don’t focus on the people on the top, focus on the people on the
front lines,” Luhnow explained. The best way to do this is to either attend games and try to befriend
scouts or to do some of your own research and try to share it online with people that already work in
baseball.
After connections have been made, the initial job quality is poor. Luhnow describes that if
you are going to break into the industry at the front lines, you usually begin as an assistant to a scout
working for free. If you are not scouting, most teams have internship programs in the front office.
“[B]ut even after a successful internship, many find there are limited opportunities for full time
work,” Luhnow notes. Pursuing a job in baseball requires commitment and passion. It is not always
the one that has the flashiest degrees that gets hired; it’s whoever shows the team that they can help
them be successful in any way. Luhnow says that “the two key areas are problem solving skills and
communication skills.” He also points out that “[r]esumes don’t get people hired, connections and
knowledge help more than a resume.” So, preparation for a job in baseball is not dependent on just
studying hard and building flashy accolades. College major is not a huge factor. Of course, math and
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science helps on the analysis side of things, but the skills required to work in baseball can stem from
a wide variety of college majors. There truly are many different ways to break into the baseball
industry, and most of it comes down to commitment and passion.
Once a baseball analyst is successfully hired, it is a really enjoyable career. Life in baseball is
hectic and busy, but definitely different than any typical career because the lucky few that hold those
jobs are as passionate about baseball as it gets. Luhnow describes baseball life as “long days, long
hours, no weekends to yourself, but otherwise a very rewarding career because you are doing what
you love.” As teams are more openly using analytics in their everyday operations, there are more
jobs being created. Looking to the future, there should be even more openings. A downside to the
baseball job market is that it is extremely demanding in terms of producing success. If it is clear that
a team is not running efficiently and successfully, employees get replaced. This will never change, as
teams will always demand the best. Overall, holding a job in the front office of a major league
baseball franchise may be one of the more rewarding careers out there.
Today, baseball analysis is vital to the success of any major league team. As a game of
advantages, baseball teams need to get ahead of the opponent in any way possible. Since the turn of
the millennium, professional baseball teams have gone from disregarding sabermetrics to embracing
it in every move they make. Past success shows that these strategies work, too. Looking to the future,
the analysis used by teams is bound to only increase as new strategies and ideas unfold. Getting a job
in baseball may be difficult, but it is enjoyable and gratifying. The lucky few that sit in the back
rooms of Wrigley Field or Minute Maid Park have changed the science of baseball forever and are
the reason teams approach the game the way they do today.
Works Cited
“Adjusted ERA+ Definition - Sporting Charts.” What Is Adjusted ERA+? Definition from
SportingCharts.com. Sporting Charts, n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014.
“Bill James.” SABR.org. SABR, n.d. Web. 20 Apr. 2014.
Coffey, Wayne. “New-age Stat Men Taking over Baseball.” NY Daily News. NY Daily News, 8 Dec.
2002. Web. 05 Apr. 2014.
Law, Keith. “Ranking All 30 Farm Systems.” ESPN.com. ESPN, 28 Jan. 2014. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Lewis, Michael. Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game. New York: W.W. Norton, 2003.
Print.
Luhnow, Jeff. E-mail interview. 7 Feb. 2014.
“Oakland Athletics 2002 Salaries.” CNNSI.com. Sports Illustrated, 2003. Web. 05 Apr. 2014.
Reiter, Ben. “Three Days in June.” Sports Illustrated. 28 Oct. 2013: 32. Academic Search Complete.
Web. 5 Mar. 2014.
St. John, Allen. “Powered By Bill James And Friends, The Red Sox Win (Another) Moneyball
World Series.” Forbes. Forbes Magazine, 31 Oct. 2013. Web. 5 Mar. 2014.
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Being a woman in the time of Stalin: Becoming the Other
by Emily Trca
(History 2225)
“S
he was now afraid of everyone and everything” (Chukovskaya 92). Such was the
experience of Sofia Petrovna, the protagonist of Lidia Chukovskaya’s Sofia Petrovna, set
in the highest years of Stalin’s regime. Sofia’s son is arrested, and she is caught up in the
hellish existence of those who were left behind, those who were forced to remember. “Nonincarcerated family members effectively lived in prisons without walls,” and Sofia’s’s prison, like
that of so many other women at that time, became marked by the walls of her own mind (Adler 215).
When Sofia finally cries out, saying “I can’t stand it any more. . .I cannot, I cannot I can’t possibly
stand it any more” the tragedy is not in her loss and brokenness, though these are valid expressions of
her condition (Chukovskaya 98). What is tragic about her confession is that she did not, and could
not, identify what “it” represented. And for that reason, one cannot, with any confidence, identify
oneself with this woman’s experience of her own human self. To be a woman under Stalin’s regime
was to be a placeholder for an idea projected by others, embodying an identity determined by the
other, who required and perpetuated her sense of alienation.
Strangely enough however, women were expected to, in a way, represent not just the
conceptual ideal of femininity, but more importantly, the ideal Russian person. “Women modeled the
ideal attitude of ‘love, honor, and obedience’” (Reid 133). The truly worthy Soviet woman “was to
place her traditionally ‘feminine’ skills as a caregiver, educator, and homemaker at the service of
Soviet society as a whole. . . by overseeing standards of hygiene, decency, and kul’turnost’ in the
workplace” (Reid 154). After Sofia Petrovna had secured a stenographic job, she was made a
member of the Mestkom, which “took up nearly all her evenings” (Chukovskaya 9). When Sofia’s
son Kolya was still living with her, he convinced her of “the necessity for women to do socially
useful work,” an idea strongly propagandized to the average Russian housewife, an idea Sofia
seemed to have internalized (Chukovskaya 14). Sofia believes her son when he explains the reason
for the arrest of, what seemed to Sofia to be, a perfectly harmless individual: “‘She didn’t recognize
Mayakovsky as a poet. . .She’s not a real Soviet person...’” (Chukovskaya 32). “Everything that was
written in the newspapers now seemed to [Sofia Petrovna] completely obvious” (Chukovskaya 14).
Yet despite women’s contribution to the well-ordered state, “envisaged as a disciplined and
hierarchical family, with the people as Stalin’s dutiful and loving children” (Reid 157), it was not
long before the biological fathers began to disappear, leaving behind “women, women, women, old
and young, in kerchiefs and hats, alone or with small children or babies. . .quiet, frightened, laconic
women” (Chukovskaya 57). It was these very women who became the oral historians of not only
their nuclear families, but also of the Russian people, Stalin’s “little family.” “Oral testimonies, on
the whole, are more reliable than literary memoirs,” and as a result, contemporary historians of the
Stalinist regime have turned increasingly to oral history as a window on questions of identity (Figes
128, 119).
In her introduction to Sofia Petrovna, Chukovskaya explains to the reader the nature of her
novel, describing it as not so much a story as “a piece of evidence, which it would be dishonorable to
destroy” (Chukovskaya 1). She asks the reader to let her “Petrovna speak today as a voice from the
past, the tale of a witness striving conscientiously, against the powerful forces of falsehood, to
discern and record the events which occurred before his eyes” (Chukovskaya 2). Chukovskaya does
well to literarily transform “herself from victim into important witness” (Clements 278). The issue
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with her objective, however, is not just her unfortunate use of phallocentric language. More
problematic is the class bias of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, where the
intelligentsia and middle ranks of Russian society “expressed ‘a telling lack of respect for the
preferences of the lower classes’ in their cultural projects and ambitions” (Holmgren 92). One must
also take into consideration the fact that memoirs written by intellectual emigres from the Soviet
Union and Soviet survivors were often written for a specific audience. In the West, these memoirs
were “widely greeted as the ‘authentic voice’ of ‘the silenced’, which told. . .what it had ‘been like’
to live through the Stalin Terror as an ordinary citizen” (Figes 117). While one should not assume
that Chukovskaya intended to misrepresent the average Russian person, the fact remains that the
story of Sophia Petrovna was not, in fact, her own. Furthermore, Chukovskaya’s purpose in writing
the novel was “to help to reveal the causes and the consequences of the great tragedy the people had
suffered” (Chukovskaya 1). However, while her words do, with integrity, identify her as a member of
“the intelligentsia strongly committed to the ideals of individual liberty,” “they do not speak for the
millions of ordinary Soviet citizens. . .who did not share this inner freedom or feeling of dissent”
(Figes 118).
The ordinary Soviet citizen, “on the contrary, silently accepted and internalized the system’s
basic values, conformed to its public rules, and perhaps even collaborated in the perpetration of its
crimes” (Figes 118). At one point in Sofia Petrovna, she approaches the wife of her former director
as they wait in line for information. The wife tells Sofia that her husband has received ten years at
remote camps, and Sofia reacts. “‘Then he was guilty after all. I never would have believed it. Such a
nice person,’ thought Sofia Petrovna . . . ‘They won’t send my son away,’ said SP apologetically.
‘You see, he’s not guilty. He was arrested by mistake.’” The director’s wife responds by laughing,
retorting that everything around them was “by mistake” (Chukovskaya 74-5). Later, Sofia confronts
her son’s friend Alik on his comparison of Kolya to others who had been arrested. “‘After all Kolya
was arrested through a misunderstanding, but the others...Don’t you read the newspapers, or what?’. .
.She had been quite right to keep aloof from her neighbors in the lines. She was sorry for them, of
course, as human beings, sorry especially for the children; but still an honest person had to remember
that all these women were the wives and mothers of poisoners, spies, and murderers” (Chukovskaya
60).
Sofia persists in her belief that there has been a misunderstanding. She assumes that if the
authorities and representatives of the Soviet regime were to understand, they would come to agree
with her conclusion. She maintained her “fundamental faith” in socialism’s “inherent superiority”
(Adler 220), despite its sustained failure to return to her that which she most desired: her son. Sofia’s
belief was sustained by social consensus and validation, which told her that “‘nothing can happen to
an honest man in our country’” (Chukovskaya 36-7). Consequently, Sofia concludes that “nothing
happens without a reason. . .[Kolya] must have put someone’s back up” (Chukovskaya 58-9). Her
fellow children of Stalin consist of the entirety of the Russian population, serving to cement Sofia’s
“subjective confidence in the validity of the belief” (Adler 224). The ever-present propaganda
motivated the Russian working class towards conformist behaviors, and thus “what might have
begun as a functional, pragmatic, or coercive conformity would have a tendency to be propelled by
cognitive dissonance from ‘adapting to’ toward ‘adopting of’ a belief system” (Adler 230, 224).
Sofia, driven by cognitive dissonance, supported her faith in the rightness of Stalin’s system by
refusing to fault the system itself, instead reinterpreting her experience as a misunderstanding, a
“perversion of an inherently good ideology” (Adler 219), later even admitting that her son must have
done something wrong. Yet this explanation cannot fully capture Sofia’s experience, nor does it give
us experiential understanding of her necessary alienation, from herself and from others.
A single story, one might argue, may not provide the fullest expression of a Russian,
working-class woman, but it certainly can do no damage as “anecdotal evidence” to supplement and
corroborate the oral narratives of survivors. However, even if one’s objective is to get at what “really
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happened,” to ask Russian survivors about their experience will not necessarily yield fully
trustworthy accounts. In post-Soviet Russia today, there is “an increasing trend to repress the
memory of repression. . .reinforced by nostalgia for a selectively edited history” (Adler 229). Those
who have experienced trauma will usually block out portions of their own past and, having no “clear
conceptual grasp of their own experience,” they have no way of making sense of their memories”
(Figes 128, 127). To fill these mental voids, the oral historians of the country, the women, would do
a number of things. Many “made up their own narratives, their own myths of the ‘happy family life’
or the ‘good father’ that was lost” (Figes 123). More victims of Stalinist repression, however,
seeking to contextualize their experiences within a meaningful, broader narrative, located their lifestories in the safety of collective narratives (Figes 126). When asked to describe their experiences,
women would offer “family chronicles” and “documentary tales” that were virtually identical to the
narratives of others (Figes 129). This seems to have developed out of a radical reshaping of one’s
memories. It was not uncommon for the victims of repression to substitute others’ coherent and clear
memories for their own, which became so fully internalized out of the need for meaning that many
oral historians would insist “on their version of events,” even after being confronted with physical
evidence that they must be wrong (Figes 124).
It is this extraordinarily strong experience of cognitive dissonance that should force one to
withdraw any absolute conclusions regarding the nature of a Russian woman’s experience. It is
almost as if those who were aware of what was happening could articulate only their autonomous
experience of those who were truly experiencing the terrors of Stalin’s regime, who in turn could not
articulate these experiences without using and internalizing the accounts of the other. Within the
conceptual framework of the nation’s memory-keeper, there was no reason to seek an understanding
of her experience, which would have required that she let go of a tightly-held belief. There was
nothing to understand. A woman’s sense of self was insignificant, unless it identified so fully with
Stalinist ideology that the very idea of being individuated was as absurd as it was immoral. Sofia’s
distressed confusion over how Kolya, the “irreproachable Komsomol member,” could have possibly
confessed a crime he could not have committed brings her to the point where “she had to decide, she
had to think,” but instead sat by the window, thinking of nothing. She seems to go mad. At the end of
the novel, Sofia burns Kolya’s letter; the reader is left with the image of a flame being thrown on the
floor and stamped out (Chukovskaya 87, 108-9). There is no closure for her––only an act of
necessary, ideological obedience to eliminate irreconcilable evidence. She chose to relinquish the
right to her own life; to speak would have been to reject and be rejected by society, to disobey and
displease the father of the country. After all, Father knew best.
Works Cited
Adler, Nanci. “Enduring Repression: Narratives of Loyalty to the Party Before, During and After the
Gulag.” EuropeAsia Studies 62.2 (March 2010): 211-234. JSTOR. Web. 11 April 2014.
Chukovskaya, Lydia. Sofia Petrovna. Trans. Aline Worth. Evanston: Northwestern University Press,
1988. Print.
Clements, Barbara Evans. “Women’s Works in Stalin’s Time: On Lidiia Chukovskaia and Nadezhda
Mandelstam by Beth Holmgren.” The History Teacher 28.2 (Feb. 1995): 277-278. JSTOR.
Web. 11 April 2014.
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Figes, Orlando. “Private Life in Stalin’s Russia: Family Narratives, Memory and Oral History.”
History Workshop Journal 65 (Spring 2008): 117-135. JSTOR. Web. 11 April 2014.
Holmgren, Beth. “Why Russian Girls Loved Charskaia.” Russian Review 54.1 (Jan. 1995): 91-106.
JSTOR. Web. 21 April 2014.
Reid, Susan E. “All Stalin’s Women: Gender and Power in Soviet Art of the 1930s.” Slavic Review
57.1 (Spring 1998): 133-173. Web. 1 April 2014.
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Mothers, Martyrs, Damsels, and Demons: Women in Western Horror from Romanticism to the
Modern Age
by Alexandra Wickersham
English 1102
T
he Western horror genre has undergone many changes over the years, reflecting and adapting
to the changes in Western society. While many of the standard plots of horror stories remain
largely unchanged, the portrayals of characters of different races, genders, and backgrounds
have undergone many alterations, some for the better, some not. In this paper, works from various
time periods will be examined, including the early nineteenth century, the 1980s and 1990s, and the
modern era. Several sub-genres of horror will be examined, including sci-fi/horror, vampire stories,
teen horror, slasher films, and action/horror. Though the general portrayal of women in the Western
horror genre appears to have changed since the Romantic era, in truth, the same sexist tropes have
been constantly present in Western horror, they have just been expressed in more insidious ways.
First, a brief overview of definitions for terms that will be used. “First wave feminism” refers to the
portion of the feminist movement that started in the nineteenth century and ended between the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, with the exact year depending on the country. One of the
primary goals of first wave feminism was getting women the right to vote.1 The term “second wave
feminism” refers to the part of the feminist movement that reached its peak during the 1970s and
1980s. The primary issues of the second wave were reproductive rights and employment
opportunities.2 The term “third wave feminism” refers to the part of the feminist movement spanning
from the mid-1990s to the present day.3 Several works of horror fiction will be examined, with each
of them being representative of the time period in which. The nineteenth-century work examined is
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, published in 1818. Works published during the second wave include
Stephen King’s Carrie (1974), Wes Craven’s A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984), Sean S.
Cunningham’s Friday the Thirteenth (1980), and William Friedkin’s The Exorcist (1973). The third
wave works that will be examined include John Fawcett’s Ginger Snaps (2000), Joss Whedon’s Buffy
the Vampire Slayer (1997-2003) and Angel (1999-2004), and Eric Kripke’s Supernatural (2005present).
The Cultural Landscape
The above named fictional works are all products of the time and places in which they were
written. To understand how these works portray women, we must examine the cultural climates that
produced them, as well as the backgrounds of the people who created them. When Frankenstein was
first published in 1818, the world was full of feminist thought, however, there was not yet a solidified
feminist movement. The word “feminist” didn’t even exist at this point, and would not exist until
near the end of the century. As early as the eighteenth century, feminist writers such as Mary Astell
and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu had gained recognition for their opposition to male dominance in
society (Taylor 205). In 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft published her famous work, A Vindication of the
Rights of Woman, in which she expressed her outrage that women had been trapped in “a state of
‘ignorance and slavish dependence’” (Gordon 144). The general public’s reaction to these early
feminist writers was not good. According to Barbara Taylor, a professor of history at the University
of East London, “by 1791 Wollstonecraft already had a reputation as an insurrectionist, the English
equivalent of the ‘revolutionary harpies of France, sprung from night and hell’” (Taylor 202). Over
150 years later, in 1974, another famous work of horror fiction was published. Carrie was the first
published novel of the now well-known writer Stephen King. When King was born in 1947, World
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War II had recently ended. During this time, women had filled many jobs that had been left by men
serving in the military. However, once the war was over, women were expected to leave their jobs
and return to their previous roles as homemakers. The often-romanticized era of the 1950s was an
era of emptiness and depression for many American women (Friedan 19). In her revolutionary 1963
book, The Feminine Mystique, feminist writer Betty Friedan termed this “the problem that has no
name” (Friedan 15). This name was fitting, as mental health professionals at the time had no term
for this phenomenon (Friedan 19). This book is largely credited with sparking the second wave of
America’s feminist movement. This movement was largely concerned with actually getting women
equal treatment under the law in practice, as opposed to just in theory.
Given the feminist ideals emerging at this time, the way King conceived of the idea of Carrie
deserves special attention. In a 1981 interview for Twilight Zone Magazine, King stated that he
wrote Carrie because “Some woman said, ‘You write all these macho things, but you can’t wrote
about women.’ I said, ‘I’m not scared of women. I could write about them if I wanted to.’ So I got
an idea for a story about this incident in a girls’ shower room, and the girl would be telekinetic. The
other girls would pelt her with sanitary napkins when she got her period. The period would release
the right hormones and she would rain down destruction on them…I did the shower scene, but I
hated it and threw it away” (Grant). King’s decision to focus on a female character came not from a
belief in equal representation in media, but from what he viewed as a challenge and an accusation of
fear. It’s also worth noting that, despite this story being written at the height of the second wave of
feminism, when women were making every effort to erase the seemingly-inherent connection
between womanhood and motherhood, King’s only idea for a story focusing on a female character
was centered around the character’s reproductive abilities. Another notable thing about the
formation of the idea that would become Carrie is that King hated the story. In his essay “On
Becoming a Brand Name,” he wrote that “I persisted because I was dry and had no better ideas…my
considered opinion was that I had written the world’s all-time loser” (King).
The 1980s saw the advent of what would become one of the most well-known subgenres of
horror: the slasher film. By the 1980s, many of the goals of the second wave of feminism had been
met or were well on their way to being met. The Roe v. Wade case had been won, giving women
more reproductive freedom, women had more opportunities for employment, and several antidiscrimination laws had been passed. However, many of the horror films of the time still contained
sexist narratives that foreshadow the later backlash against women’s progress. “Possessed girl”
stories and “black and white” morality permeated the horror genre at this time.
The mid-1990s saw the beginning of the third wave of feminism. One of the most famous
works of horror fiction from this era is Joss Whedon’s television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer,
which ran from 1997 to 2003. Its popularity and cultural impact created the term “The Buffy Era” as
a nickname for this time period. This era marks the beginning of what has been termed “backlash
broadcasting.” On the subject of the backlash against women’s rights, journalist Susan Faludi writes
“it’s a recurring phenomenon: it returns every time women begin to make some headway toward
equality” (Faludi 46). Though backlash is not unique to the modern era, the prominence of media in
everyday life makes the backlash extremely visible.
Motherhood in Horror
Maternal death is a major theme in Frankenstein. In her critical essay “Frankenstein’s
Circumvention of the Maternal,” Margaret Homans writes “There are many mothers in the
Frankenstein circle, and all die horrible deaths” (Homans 134). In addition to Frankenstein’s mother,
Caroline, mother-figures Elizabeth and Justine also suffer early deaths. Elizabeth’s illness causes
Caroline’s death, after which Elizabeth becomes a replacement for her, acting as a surrogate mother
to Frankenstein’s younger brothers. Justine Moritz also becomes a substitute mother to William
Frankenstein, and later is accused of and executed for his murder (Homans 134).
The death of mothers and mother-figures is a common theme is Joss Whedon’s TV series’
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Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel, which will both be discussed in greater depth later. On Buffy, in
the episode “The Body,” the main character, Buffy Summers, comes home to find her mother dead.
Joyce Summers’s death forces Buffy into the role of being the “mother” to her sister, Dawn. Her
new role as Dawn’s primary protector directly leads to Buffy sacrificing herself, jumping to her death
in order to close a portal that can only be closed with the death of one of the sisters (“The Gift”).
Buffy is even told that her death is her “gift” to her sister and to the world (“Intervention”). Like the
deaths of the mother-figures in Frankenstein, Buffy’s motherhood is painted as inherently linked to
sacrifice. Despite the fact that Buffy did have other options (killing the person who planned to open
the portal, or stalling them long enough that it would be past the time frame in which they could open
it), she, like Caroline Frankenstein, chose the route that she knew could result in her death.
After Buffy’s death, her friends Willow and Tara take over as mother-figures to Dawn. Their
maternal roles are highlighted and cemented in place after Willow and Tara break up, and Tara gives
Dawn the typical “divorced parents talk,” in which she assures Dawn that their break-up was not her
fault and they can still see each other at any time (“Smashed”). Tara is killed immediately after
getting back together with Willow (“Seeing Red”). Though, unlike Buffy Summers and Caroline
Frankenstein, her death is not directly linked to her being a mother, it is linked to her involvement
with the Summers family, much like Justine Moritz’s death is linked to her involvement with the
Frankensteins. If Tara hadn’t chosen to be part of the family and to reassume her role as Dawn’s
substitute mother, she wouldn’t have been in the Summers house, and wouldn’t have been shot by
the stray bullet that was meant for Buffy.
Angel, Joss Whedon’s spin-off of Buffy, which ran from 1999 to 2004, is also rife with the
theme of maternal death. In the show’s second season, a vampire named Darla, Angel’s former lover
who was killed in the early seasons of Buffy, is resurrected. After failing to kill Angel, she simply
disappears. In the third season, she returns, nine months pregnant with Angel’s child (“Offspring”).
She later kills herself by driving a stake through her own heard for the sole purpose of giving birth to
a child she didn’t want (“Lullaby”). Later in the season, Cordelia, who became a surrogate mother to
Darla and Angel’s son, ascends to a higher plane of existence, being forced to abandon her family,
and is assumed to be gone forever (“Ground State”). She later returns to Earth and gets pregnant,
which ends in her going into a coma and eventually dying.
No discussion of motherhood in horror would be complete without mention of Supernatural,
a horror series that first aired in 2005 and is still airing today.
The first death in the series occurs in the pilot episode, when Mary Winchester, the mother of
the two main characters, is murdered by a demon. Because of her death, the boy’ father raises them
to hunt monsters, robbing them of any chance they had at a normal childhood (“Pilot”). Mary is put
on a pedestal, with her role as a wife and mother becoming a symbol of the normal life her family
lost. Twenty-two years after her death, Sam, the younger of the two brothers, has left the family and
is living a normal, stable life with his girlfriend, Jess. At the end of the pilot episode, Sam returns
home to find Jess dead, murdered in the same manner as Mary (“Pilot”). Her death causes Sam to be
drawn back into the life he left behind, giving up his chance at law school, marriage, and normality in
general. Like Mary, Jess wasn’t a character in her own right, but a symbol of a normal, domestic life
the main characters couldn’t have.
In the third season, the character of Lisa Braeden is introduced. Lisa is an old girlfriend of
Dean, the older brother, and the mother of a child who is suspected to be his (“The Kids Are
Alright”). In the sixth season, Dean moves in with Lisa and begins living a relatively normal life
(“Exile On Main St.”). Eventually, this falls apart when Lisa and her son, Ben, are kidnapped by
demons, and Lisa is possessed. Dean attempts an exorcism, even though he knows Lisa will
probably die if he goes through with it (“Let It Bleed”). Even though Lisa survives, Dean has
symbolically killed her and, by extension, destroyed his normal life.
In the seventh season, Linda Tran, the mother of a teenage prophet, is introduced. Despite
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the revelation that all things supernatural are real, she tries to protect her son and keep his life as
normal as possible, even as he’s being hunted by demons (“What’s Up, Tiger Mommy?”). When she
goes missing, it’s assumed that she’s been killed by the main antagonist, Crowley. When Crowley
reveals that Kevin’s mother is alive, Dean forbids Kevin from trying to rescue her (“Devil May
Care”). Though Linda Tran is her own character and, as such, her connection to the idea of a normal
life isn’t as implicit as Marry, Jess, or Lisa’s, she is the last part of Kevin’s old life that remains after
he learns he’s a prophet. Once he’s forced to give up his life as a normal teenager, Dean also forces
him to give up on saving his mother.
In Stephen King’s Carrie, Margaret White’s motherhood is written as being directly
connected to her mental instability. After her first pregnancy resulted in a miscarriage, sex,
pregnancy, and childbirth became linked in with sin in her mind, causing her to consider Carrie her
“punishment.” This led to her mental break and her abuse of her daughter (King 153-154).
In Friday the Thirteenth, the murders committed by Pamela Voorheese are inherently tied to
her role as a mother. Her anger which drove her to kill the counselors at Camp Crystal Lake was
caused by the death of her son, Jason, who drowned while two camp counselors weren’t paying
attention. It’s worth noting that this film was released in 1980, during the precursor to today’s
epidemic of backlash broadcasting, and that Mrs. Voorheese was a working mother who the audience
is supposed to see as a villain. When viewed through this lens, Friday the Thirteenth can be taken as
an early backlash film, attempting to moralize about the perceived “dangers” or working women.
Women’s Agency in Horror
As Anne K. Mellor points out in her essay “Possessing Nature,” a key part of the narrative of
Frankenstein revolves around a man removing or restricting women’s agency. “He [Frankenstein] is
afraid of an independent female will, afraid that his female creature will have desires and opinions
that cannot be controlled by his male creature” (Mellor 360). Mellor also notes that in attempting to
create life on his own, Frankenstein is “stealing the female’s control over reproduction” (Mellor
355). In addition to his attempts to remove women’s agency through his scientific endeavors,
Frankenstein does the same through his secrecy. By not telling anyone about the Creature, he
removes Justine’s ability to defend herself against the accusation of murder. He also denies
Elizabeth the ability to remove herself from the danger of being associated with him. In both these
cases, his secrecy and disregard for these women’s lives and agency results in their deaths.
In the modern era, women’s agency is often restricted, both in real life and in fiction.
Supernatural has become infamous for this. However, in contrast to Frankenstein, Supernatural
portrays men’s restriction of women’s agency as a good, necessary thing. In the second season
episode “No Exit,” Sam and Dean team up with Jo Harvelle, the daughter of an old friend of their
father’s, to hunt and destroy the ghost of H. H. Holmes, who has been killing young women. Despite
the fact that Jo is an adult who was also raised as a hunter (“Everybody Loves A Clown”), Dean
attempts to stop her, not just from joining their hunt, but from hunting in general. He even goes so
far as to threaten to call her mother, as though Jo were a child, rather than a woman in her 20s.
Though Jo helps them defeat Holmes, she is sent back home to her mother, and is only considered a
member of the Winchesters’ “team” when they have no other options (“Abandon All Hope”). In the
current season, Carlie Bradbury, Sam and Dean’s ally from season seven, returns and reveals that she
has been hunting ghosts and vampires on her own (“Slumber Party”). Dean’s reaction is very much
the same as his reaction to Jo, despite the fact that Charlie is also a grown woman. Dean’s
paternalistic views are proven “right” when Charlie is killed. Even though she is resurrected, her
death is still part of the show’s pattern of infantilizing women and treating them as if they can’t
“handle” their own agency.
One of the most well-known examples of Supernatural’s removal of women’s agency is the
fate of Lisa Braeden. After she is possessed and nearly dies, Dean has her memory of him wiped
(“Let It Bleed”). Because she remembers nothing about him, she also knows nothing about demons
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or monsters, and therefore loses her ability to protect herself and her son from future danger.
Often in modern media, women who control and retain their agency are portrayed as villains.
On Buffy the Vampire Slayer, female vampires are written as inherently sexual (and predatory)
creatures, with their sexuality directly tied to their dangerous nature. The first non-vampiric adult
woman with sexual agency on the show turns out to be a praying-mantis-like monster who poses as a
substitute teacher in order to feed on male students (“Teacher’s Pet”).
In the Supernatural episode “Bloody Mary,” the boys encounter a true version of the Bloody
Mary urban legend.4 The ghost of a woman named Mary is revealed to be responsible for a series of
deaths in a small town. The deaths are Mary’s attempts to get justice for her own murder, as well as
the murders committed by her victims. The audience is not intended to have any sympathy for Mary,
instead viewing her as another ghost to destroy.
Metaphors for Female Adolescence
Most well-known contemporary mainstream fiction is created by men, the majority of whom
have no way of understanding what it means to be a woman, let alone an adolescent girl. Stereotypes
of women as mysterious and unknowable creatures, practically a separate species from men, persist
to this day. Nowhere is this more evident than in second-wave horror’s consistent portrayal of
female biology as a metaphor for the monstrous. Tammy Oler writes that “Carrie and her cohorts
entered puberty at a time when the horror genre was obsessed with the female curse” (Oler 32). She
also writes that “As much as images like those in the likes of Carrie and The Exorcist offer the
possibility of embracing a distinctly feminine source of power, they threaten to reduce girls to mere
expressions of their biological essence” (Oler 36). Indeed, in Stephen King’s Carrie, a future study
of Carrie’s telekinetic abilities states that “Carrie White’s exceptionally late and traumatic
commencement of the menstrual cycle might well have provided the trigger for her latent talent”
(King 8). In his interview for Twilight Zone Magazine, King stated that in his original concept for
the book, it was specifically the hormones related to menstruation that caused Carrie’s telekinetic
abilities.
In her article “Bloodletting: Female Adolescence in Modern Horror Films,” Oler pays special
attention to the 2000 film Ginger Snaps. The plot of this film revolves around a teenage girl named
Ginger who is bitten by a werewolf shortly after having her first period. Older notes that “When her
younger sister Brigitte begins to suspect that Ginger is undergoing more than just ‘the most normal
thing in the world,’ she observes, ‘Something’s wrong – like more than you being just female’” (Oler
35). The conflation of being female with being “wrong” speaks to the idea of a young woman going
through puberty as something inherently wrong or scary.
Even today, in a supposedly enlightened and sex-positive era, this positioning of female
puberty as equivalent to the monsters of horror is still common. In the Buffy the Vampire Slayer
episode “Innocence,” Buffy’s vampire boyfriend, Angel, loses his soul and, by extension, his
humanity, as a direct result of having sex with Buffy. This not only causes Angel’s eventual death
when Buffy is forced to kill him (“Becoming (Part 2)”), but also results in the deaths of some of her
classmates (“Phases”) and her teacher and mentor, Jenny (“Passion”).
In the first season of Supernatural, the Winchesters discover a true version of another urban
legend: the hook man.5 The ghost of a preacher who had been executed for murdering prostitutes has
attached itself to Lori, an 18-year-old girl who is the daughter of the town’s current preacher. He
feeds off Lori’s repressed emotions and kills people both she and ghost view as “immoral,” including
Lori’s over-affectionate boyfriend, her sexually active roommate, and her father, who is having an
affair with a married woman (“Hook Man”). The deaths of each victim are directly tied to Lori’s
confusion about her repressed sexuality, and her religious beliefs about how sexuality should be
expressed.
In Supernatural’s seventh season, the Amazons join the show’s mythology. Dean has a onenight stand with an Amazon warrior, which results in the conception and birth of a daughter. It’s
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quickly revealed that the Amazons are responsible for the recent deaths in the town. The
Winchesters discover that once an Amazon girl turns 16, she has to kill her father as part of her
coming-of-age ritual (“The Slice Girls”). In this case, the connection could not be more obvious: the
process of a girl becoming a woman is contingent on someone else’s death.
These examples show that despite the massive amounts of medical knowledge on the subject,
female adolescence is still viewed as a dark unknown, as something to be feared. Male puberty isn’t
portrayed this way in the modern era. The MTV series Teen Wolf, like the film Ginger Snaps, uses
lycanthropy as a metaphor for puberty, but the protagonist is a boy rather than a girl. Teen Wolf
portrays being a werewolf as being an amazing experience, while Ginger Snaps paints it as a tragedy.
Male puberty turns boys into superheroes, while female puberty turns girls into monsters.
The Possessed Girl
Another common narrative involving teenage girls is the “possessed girl.” Oler describes the
possessed girl as a narrative in which “women’s very bodies become the Pandora’s box that
unleashes evil into the worldly domain” (Oler 33). Oler cites Carrie, Ginger Snaps, and The Exorcist
as examples of this narrative. Oler writes that “while these girls [Carrie, Ginger, and Regan] are
ostensibly the films’ subjects, the narrative action inevitable reduces them to being merely bodies
themselves, with their actual experiences rarely investigated or explored” (Oler 33). In Carrie, most
of the narrative is from the perspective of other people, whether it’s one of Carrie’s classmates, one
of her teachers, a journalist reporting on prom night, or a scientist studying telekinesis. Little of the
overall story is focused on Carrie herself, rather, the focus is on her power and the destruction she
causes with it. In Ginger Snaps, the focus shifts away from Ginger after her transformation, with the
story becoming more about her still-human (and still-prepubescent) sister. On the subject of The
Exorcist, Oler writes that “Regan transforms from girl to female portal so thoroughly that her
character’s only cry for help is literally written on her body (“help me” spelled out in the raised skin
of her stomach). At the end of the film, when an enraged Father Karras, the titular exorcist,
physically assaults Regan, the audience barely registers any shock. In no other film context would
the act of a grown man punching a teenage girl be acceptable, or even understandable. Yet the action
that immediately follows – Karras is himself possessed and subsequently hurled out the window to
his death – makes it clear that this is really his story and not that of the young girl left crying in the
corner of her room. Regan spends the few remaining moments of the film gaunt and silent, hardly
even a witness to her own terrifying trials. No longer “open” (at least not until the sequel) thanks to
Karras’s sacrifice, she becomes useless as the object of horror – and as the subject of the film” (Oler
34). The possession of adolescent girls by outside forces, most often brought on by or directly
coinciding with their maturation into women, serves to dehumanize them to the point where they are
able to be abused for the sake of the plot, without the audience wondering what they are going
through. Despite being supernatural in focus, this narrative is mirrored in the real world, with
violence against women being at epidemic levels in Western society. While young girls on screen
are being painted as inhuman monsters, and therefore acceptable targets for abuse, real-life women
and girls are faced with a reality in which one in four women experience actual or attempted rape
(“Sexual Assault Statistics”), and a woman’s murder will get a man an average sentence of two to six
years in jail (“The Michigan Women’s Justice & Clemency Project”). The “possessed girl”
narratives, when paired with these statistics, show a vivid picture of how Western society devalues
women.
Subverted Tropes
TV Tropes, an online database that defines, categorizes, and tracks tropes in media
throughout history, defines a “subversion” as “playing bait and switch with a trope. A work makes
you think a trope is going to happen, but it doesn’t” (“Subverted Trope”). Frankenstein subverts one
of the oldest tropes in literature, dating back to the book of Genesis: the idea that women are the
source of trouble, and the source of humanity’s general woes. In Frankenstein, the protagonist’s
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troubles are caused not by a woman, but by the fact that he tries to create life on his own, cutting
women out of the process.
Wes Craven’s 1984 film A Nightmare On Elm Street subverts another well-known trope: the
damsel in distress. While Nancy seems like the typical female horror protagonist, she’s the one who
saves herself in the end and defeats Freddy Krueger. Her mother defies this trope as well, being one
of the mob that originally killed Krueger to save their children.
Whedon’s World
Writer/director Joss Whedon is often hailed as a beacon of feminism in an otherwise
incredibly sexist television and film industry. However, in recent years, women have come out of the
woodwork criticizing Whedon for employing just as many sexist tropes as his cohorts, and masking
it in rhetoric about “strong female characters.”
When Buffy the Vampire Slayer first aired in 1997, it became notable for supposedly
subverting two very common tropes: the “dumb blonde” stereotype, and the damsel in distress.
However, Buffy’s liberation from these tropes is contingent upon other women being victims of
them. In the first episode, the character of Cordelia Chase takes Buffy’s place as the by then
archetypal “stupid girl who always gets killed in horror movies.” Not only does this play into the
idea that there must always be a “dumb” woman, rather than having all female characters possess
equal amounts of intelligence, it also plays off the stereotypes that women are inherently competitive
with each other. As the “dumb” girl, Cordelia is set up as the most popular girl in school, the
airheaded cheerleader who the boys fall head over heels for. When Buffy moves to Sunnydale,
Cordelia’s position as the prettiest and the most popular is threatened, ‘causing her to bully Buffy and
spread rumors about her.
Whedon also uses the concept of the “good girl” vs the “bad girl” to set up the contrast
between Buffy, and the “dark Slayer” Faith, introduced in season three. Faith is set up as the antiBuffy. She grew up poor, it’s implied she was abused as a child, she’s been in trouble with the law,
and she is fiercely independent, not wanting to rely on family or friends for anything. But the key
difference that is brought up in any discussion of Faith is that she is not the sexually “pure” girl that
Buffy is, but rather a sexually aware and mature woman. One of the first clues the audience gets that
there is something “wrong” about Faith is that she is open about the fact that she’s an adult who has
sex (“Faith, Hope & Trick”). In her book Sex and the Slayer: A Gender Studies Primer for the Buffy
Fan, Lorna Jowett writes that “Faith is ‘bad’ not because she participates in sex and violence but
because she enjoys them” (Jowett 86). Part of the Western cultural narrative about what defines a
“good girl” is that women are meant to have sex for specific purposes (most often procreation), but
aren’t supposed to enjoy sex (Valenti 196). Women who enjoy sex, like Faith, are viewed as being
“deviant” or “transgressive” (Jowett 86).
As was discussed earlier, both Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel carry the theme of
maternal death. Buffy is often praised as a “strong female character,” but the deaths of the maternal
figures in her life are used by the narrative to punish her for her strength and to drive Buffy into a
dark place where her situation seems hopeless. Jenny’s death in the first season was used to prevent
Buffy from being able to return Angel’s soul (“Passion”). Joyce’s death was used to destroy the
happy and relatively normal life Buffy had been leading during the fifth season (“The Body”).
Buffy’s own death becomes her punishment for attempting to find a way to save her sister, as well as
being Dawn’s punishment for her inherent magical power. If Dawn wasn’t this powerful, there
would have been no need for Buffy to sacrifice herself (“The Gift”).
The final sexist trope that will be discussed in the context of Whedon’s universe is the
“mystical pregnancy.” The mystical pregnancy occurs when a female character’s pregnancy is
caused or affected by supernatural forces. This happens multiple times on the series Angel, most
notable to Angel’s two love interests, Darla and Cordelia. In both cases, the pregnancy isn’t part of
the female character’s story arc, but rather a way to throw a new hurdle in the path of the male lead.
149
When Darla appears in the third season, pregnant with Angel’s child, she kills herself to save it,
despite the fact that she didn’t want to have the baby in the first place (“Lullaby”). The main point of
Darla’s pregnancy story line isn’t about her. The focus is placed on Angel having to take
responsibility for a child he didn’t know he was going to have. When Cordelia becomes pregnant,
the focus of the narrative is once again placed on Angel. Cordelia’s pregnancy becomes a way to
give Angel a new villain to defeat (“Inside Out”).
Conclusion
Over the years, women have made a lot of progress toward equality. However, each time
progress is made, a new wave of anti-feminism arises to attempt to undo what little has been done.
This is extremely evident in the media produced by Western society, whether that media is offering
commentary on sexist ideas, such as in Frankenstein, or is directly endorsing them, like Supernatural
or Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Women appear to be in a much better place in society than we were in
the nineteenth century, but digging beneath the surface reveals that systemic misogyny hasn’t gotten
that much better, and in some ways has gotten worse. This is reflected in our media, which appears
to be more egalitarian until the material is examined more closely, after which the sexist nature of
some of our most popular books, TV shows, and films can be more clearly seen.
Notes
1
In most Western countries, first wave feminism was mostly focused on white women. In the United
States, slavery was still legal for much of the first wave of feminism, and black women were rarely
included in women’s struggle for civil rights until the late nineteenth century.
2
Like the first wave, the second wave was largely focused on white women and middle-class women,
especially when it came to employment opportunities. Poor women and women of color had already
been working outside the home due to necessity. White middle-class women were the ones who
primarily benefitted from the second wave’s focus on employment. The early second wave
movement also distanced itself from the struggles of disabled and lesbian, bisexual, and transgender
women.
3
Mainstream third-wave feminism started off also with the focus on white women. However, due to
the advent of the Internet, intersectional feminism became more well-known, with more women of
color, disabled women, and queer women gaining a platform through which their voices could be
heard and they could connect with other women who faced the same struggles.
4
The Bloody Mary legend states that if you say the words “Bloody Mary” three times into a mirror,
her ghost will appear. The actual original Bloody Mary was Queen Mary I of England, who had
hundreds of Protestants killed during her brief reign (“Mary I, Queen of England (1516-1558)”). The
Mary who appears in this episode of Supernatural is unrelated to the original Bloody Mary.
5
The Hook Man is an urban legend about two teenagers who sneak off into the woods together, and
hear a radio broadcast about an escaped convict who is known to kill people with a hook. When they
hear a noise in the woods, the boyfriend leaves the car to check it out, only to be killed by the Hook
Man. The girl escapes, but when she arrives at home, she finds a hook dangling from the handle of
her car door.
150
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“Becoming (Part 2).” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Second Season. Writ. Joss Whedon.
Dir. Joss Whedon. Warner Brothers, 1998. DVD.
“Bloody Mary.” Supernatural: The Complete First Season. Writ. Ron Milbauer and Terri Hughes
Burton. Dir. Peter Ellis. Warner Brothers, 2005. DVD.
“The Body.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Fifth Season. Writ. Joss Whedon. Dir. Joss
Whedon. Warner Brothers, 2001. DVD.
“Devil May Care.” Supernatural. Writ. Andrew Dabb. Dir. Guy Bee. The CW, 2013. Television.
“Everybody Loves A Clown.” Supernatural: The Complete Second Season. Writ. John Shiban.
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“Exile On Main St.” Supernatural: The Complete Sixth Season. Writ. Sera Gamble. Dir. Philip
Sgriccia. Warner Brothers, 2010. DVD.
The Exorcist. Dir. William Friedkin. Perf. Ellen Burstyn, Max von Sydow, Jason Miller, and Linda
Blair. Warner Brothers, 1973. DVD.
“Faith, Hope & Trick.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Third Season. Writ. David
Greenwalt. Dir. James A. Contner. Warner Brothers, 1998. DVD.
Faludi, Susan. Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women. New York: Crown
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Friday the Thirteenth. Dir. Sean S. Cunningham. Perf. Betsy Palmer and Adrienne King.
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Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York: W. W. Norton, 1963. Print.
“The Gift.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Fifth Season. Writ. Joss Whedon. Dir. Joss
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1981. Print.
“Ground State.” Angel: The Complete Fourth Season. Writ. Mere Smith. Dir. Michael Grossman.
Warner Brothers, 2002. DVD.
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Warner Brothers, 2005. DVD.
“Innocence.” Buffy The Vampire Slayer: The Complete Second Season. Writ. Joss Whedon. Dir.
Joss Whedon. Warner Brothers, 1998. DVD.
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DeKnight. Warner Brothers, 2003. DVD
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Michael Gershman. Warner Brothers, 2001. DVD.
Jowett, Lorna. Sex and the Slayer: A Gender Studies Primer for the Buffy Fan. Middletown, CT:
Wesleyan University Press, 2005. Print.
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King, Stephen. Carrie. New York: Doubleday, 1974. Print.
King, Stephen. “On Becoming A Brand Name.” Adelina Magazine February 1980. Print.
“Let It Bleed.” Supernatural: The Complete Sixth Season. Writ. Sera Gamble. Dir. John Showalter.
Warner Brothers, 2011. DVD.
“Lullaby.” Angel: The Complete Third Season. Writ. Tim Minear. Dir. Tim Minear. Warner
Brothers, 2001.
“Mary I, Queen of England (1516-1558).” Luminarium Enyclopedia Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov.
2013. <http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/queenmary.htm>.
Mellor, Anne K. “Possessing Nature: The Female In Frankenstein.” Frankenstein. Ed. J. Paul
Hunter. New York: W.W. Northn, 2012. 355 – 368. Print.
“The Michigan Women's Justice & Clemency Project.” The Michigan Women's Justice & Clemency
Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2013.
<http://www.umich.edu/~clemency/clemency_mnl/ch1.html>.
“No Exit.” Supernatural: The Complete Second Season. Writ. Matt Witten. Dir. Kim Manners.
Warner Brothers, 2006. DVD.
“Offspring.” Angel: The Complete Third Season. Writ. David Greenwalt. Dir. Turi Meyer. Warner
Brothers, 2001. DVD.
Oler, Tammy. “Bloodletting: Female Adolescence in Modern Horror Films.” Bitchfest. Ed. Lisa
Jervis and Andi Zeisler. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006. 31-37. Print.
“Passion.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Second Season. Writ. Ty King. Dir. Michael
Gershman. Warner Brothers, 1998. DVD.
“Phases.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Second Season. Writ. Rob Des Hotel & Dean
Batali. Dir. Bruce Seth Green. Warner Brothers, 1998. DVD.
“Pilot.” Supernatural: The Complete First Season. Writ. Eric Kripke. Dir. David Nutter. Warner
Brothers, 2005. DVD.
“Seeing Red.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Sixth Season. Writ. Steven DeKnight. Dir.
Michael Gershman. Warner Brothers, 2002. DVD.
“Sexual Assault Statistics.” One In Four USA. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2013.
<http://www.oneinfourusa.org/statistics.php>.
Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. Ed. J. Paul Hunter. New York: W.W. Norton, 2012. Print.
“The Slice Girls.” Supernatural: The Complete Seventh Season. Writ. Brad Buckner & Eugenie
Ross-Leming. Dir. Jerry Wanek. Warner Brothers, 2012. DVD.
“Slumber Party.” Supernatural. Writ. Robbie Thompson. Dir. Robert Singer. The CW, 2013.
Television.
“Smashed.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Sixth Season. Writ. Drew Z. Greenburg. Dir.
Turi Meyer. Warner Brothers, 2001. DVD.
“Subverted Trope.” TVTropes.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2013.
<http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/SubvertedTrope>.
Taylor, Barbara. “Mary Wollstonecraft and the Wild Wish of Early Feminism.” History Workshop
Journal. No. 33 (1992): 197-219. JSTOR. Web. 24 November 2013.
“Teacher’s Pet.” Buffy The Vampire Slayer: The Complete First Season. Writ. David Greenwalt.
Dir. Bruce Seth Green. Warner Brothers, 1997. DVD.
Valenti, Jessica. The Purity Myth: How America’s Obsession with Virginity is Hurting Young
Women. Berkeley, CA: Seal Press, 2010. Print.
“What’s Up, Tiger Mommy?” Supernatural: The Complete Eighth Season. Writ. Andrew Dabb &
Daniel Loflin. Dir. John Showalter. Warner Brothers, 2012. DVD.
152
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“Abandon All Hope.” Supernatural: The Complete Fifth Season. Writ. Ben Edlund. Dir. Philip
Sgriccia. Warner Brothers, 2009. DVD.
“Becoming (Part 2).” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Second Season. Writ. Joss Whedon.
Dir. Joss Whedon. Warner Brothers, 1998. DVD.
“Bloody Mary.” Supernatural: The Complete First Season. Writ. Ron Milbauer and Terri Hughes
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“Everybody Loves A Clown.” Supernatural: The Complete Second Season. Writ. John Shiban.
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“Exile On Main St.” Supernatural: The Complete Sixth Season. Writ. Sera Gamble. Dir. Philip
Sgriccia. Warner Brothers, 2010. DVD.
The Exorcist. Dir. William Friedkin. Perf. Ellen Burstyn, Max von Sydow, Jason Miller, and Linda
Blair. Warner Brothers, 1973. DVD.
“Faith, Hope & Trick.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Third Season. Writ. David
Greenwalt. Dir. James A. Contner. Warner Brothers, 1998. DVD.
Faludi, Susan. Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women. New York: Crown
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Friday the Thirteenth. Dir. Sean S. Cunningham. Perf. Betsy Palmer and Adrienne King.
Paramount Pictures, 1980. DVD.
Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York: W. W. Norton, 1963. Print.
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Whedon. Warner Brothers, 2001. DVD.
Gordon, Lyndall. Vindication: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft. New York: HarperCollins, 2005.
Print.
Grant, Charles L. “Stephen King: ‘I Like to go for the Jugular.’” Twilight Zone Magazine April
1981. Print.
“Ground State.” Angel: The Complete Fourth Season. Writ. Mere Smith. Dir. Michael Grossman.
Warner Brothers, 2002. DVD.
“Hook Man.” Supernatural: The Complete First Season. Writ. John Shiban. Dir. David Jackson.
Warner Brothers, 2005. DVD.
“Innocence.” Buffy The Vampire Slayer: The Complete Second Season. Writ. Joss Whedon. Dir.
Joss Whedon. Warner Brothers, 1998. DVD.
“Inside Out.” Angel: The Complete Fourth Season. Writ. Steven S. DeKnight. Dir. Steven S.
DeKnight. Warner Brothers, 2003. DVD
153
“Intervention.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Fifth Season. Writ. Jane Espenson. Dir.
Michael Gershman. Warner Brothers, 2001. DVD.
Jowett, Lorna. Sex and the Slayer: A Gender Studies Primer for the Buffy Fan. Middletown, CT:
Wesleyan University Press, 2005. Print.
“The Kids Are Alright.” Supernatural: The Complete Third Season. Writ. Sera Gamble. Dir. Philip
Sgriccia. Warner Brothers, 2007. DVD.
King, Stephen. Carrie. New York: Doubleday, 1974. Print.
King, Stephen. “On Becoming A Brand Name.” Adelina Magazine February 1980. Print.
“Let It Bleed.” Supernatural: The Complete Sixth Season. Writ. Sera Gamble. Dir. John Showalter.
Warner Brothers, 2011. DVD.
“Lullaby.” Angel: The Complete Third Season. Writ. Tim Minear. Dir. Tim Minear. Warner
Brothers, 2001.
“Mary I, Queen of England (1516-1558).” Luminarium Enyclopedia Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov.
2013. <http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/queenmary.htm>.
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Hunter. New York: W.W. Northn, 2012. 355-368. Print.
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<http://www.umich.edu/~clemency/clemency_mnl/ch1.html>.
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Warner Brothers, 2006. DVD.
“Offspring.” Angel: The Complete Third Season. Writ. David Greenwalt. Dir. Turi Meyer. Warner
Brothers, 2001. DVD.
Oler, Tammy. “Bloodletting: Female Adolescence in Modern Horror Films.” Bitchfest. Ed. Lisa
Jervis and Andi Zeisler. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006. 31-37. Print.
“Passion.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Second Season. Writ. Ty King. Dir. Michael
Gershman. Warner Brothers, 1998. DVD.
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Batali. Dir. Bruce Seth Green. Warner Brothers, 1998. DVD.
“Pilot.” Supernatural: The Complete First Season. Writ. Eric Kripke. Dir. David Nutter. Warner
Brothers, 2005. DVD.
“Seeing Red.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Sixth Season. Writ. Steven DeKnight. Dir.
Michael Gershman. Warner Brothers, 2002. DVD.
“Sexual Assault Statistics.” One In Four USA. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2013.
<http://www.oneinfourusa.org/statistics.php>.
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“The Slice Girls.” Supernatural: The Complete Seventh Season. Writ. Brad Buckner & Eugenie
Ross-Leming. Dir. Jerry Wanek. Warner Brothers, 2012. DVD.
“Slumber Party.” Supernatural. Writ. Robbie Thompson. Dir. Robert Singer. The CW, 2013.
Television.
“Smashed.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Complete Sixth Season. Writ. Drew Z. Greenburg. Dir.
Turi Meyer. Warner Brothers, 2001. DVD.
“Subverted Trope.” TVTropes.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2013.
<http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/SubvertedTrope>.
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Taylor, Barbara. “Mary Wollstonecraft and the Wild Wish of Early Feminism.” History Workshop
Journal. No. 33 (1992): 197-219. JSTOR. Web. 24 November 2013.
“Teacher’s Pet.” Buffy The Vampire Slayer: The Complete First Season. Writ. David Greenwalt.
Dir. Bruce Seth Green. Warner Brothers, 1997. DVD.
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Daniel Loflin. Dir. John Showalter. Warner Brothers, 2012. DVD.
155
Naturally Occurring Persistent Organic Pollutant
by Ryan Woitas
(Chemistry 1552)
N
ative across forests of Central and Northern Europe lives a species so vulgar, it would be
hard pressed to think that such a beast could possess a certain quality that gives significant
meaning to its existence. With its compact body, stubby legs, and wide head, the bristly
haired wild boar may provide insight to chemists about an organic compound called drosophilin A
(p-methoxytetrachlorophenol) that closely resembles persistent organic pollutants. Industrial
persistent organic pollutants are halogenated molecules that are intrinsic with environmental
toxicity.1 First studied by chemists in 1952, drosophilin A has become part of the modern scientific
community due to an alarming discovery of the potentially fatal organic compound residing in wild
boar meat sold in German food markets.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are not uncommon; there are theoretically reported 209
polychlorinated biphenyls (POPs) that differ from each other only by their constituents quantities,
primarily the chlorine, and substitution positions. POPs are known for their hydrophobic and
lipophilic desires as well as displaying attractive tendencies towards organic solids when in aqueous
environments in an effort to avoid the liquid phase. What makes POPs especially harmful to
mammalian body systems is the attractive nature of the toxic molecules to lipid storages, which
consequently causes the chemical to remain in mammalian adipose tissue storages, indefinitely.
POPs also have an affinity for traveling; POPs may enter the gas phase in certain environmental
conditions, as temperatures warm, POPs are expelled into the lower atmosphere where they can
travel long distances due to their resilient nature to breaking down or forming more stable
compounds in the air. Such a characteristic of POPs is a cause of concern since it is possible for the
toxic compounds to travel far from their origin, depositing into river beds contaminating water and
aquatic life.2
Drosophilin A was the first natural chlorinated compound studied and analyzed to contain a
halogenated benzene ring that was first isolated in 1952 from a basidiomycete, a fungus whose
spores develop in basidia.3 Basidiomycetes are the parent group of most familiar mushrooms and
toadstools. Table 1 displays the minimum various species that are known to contain drosophilin A.
Significance of the aforementioned discovery answers questions that arose to a group of scientists in
Germany, who made an astonishing discovery while performing a routine safety inspection of a food
market, specifically in the markets supply of wild boar meat. Routinely analyzed samples of wild
boar meat tested positive for drosophilin A, however, since these animals are usually hunted in
heavily wooded areas away from industrialization (the primary source of POPs) it became apparent
that the source of drosophilin A contained within the wild boar meat was from something benign: a
subspecies of basidiomycete known to be a part of the wild beasts diet.
1
de Jong, Ed et al. “Significant biogenesis of chlorinated aromatics by fungi in natural environments.” Applied and
environmental microbiology 60.1 (1994): 264-270.
2
Jones, Kevin C, and P De Voogt. "Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): state of the science." Environmental
Pollution 100.1 (1999): 209-221.
3
Anchel M. 1952. Identification of drosophilin A as p-methoxytetrachlorophenol. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 74:2943.
156
TABLE 1
DROSOPHILIN PRODUCTION BY BASIDIOMYCETES
Organism
Drosophilin A (mg/L)
Agaricus arvensis
0.5004
Bjerkandera adusta
0.5004
Coprinus plicatilis
20.05
Peniophora pseudeopini
1.004
Phellinus fastuosus
15.74& 6
Psathyrella subatrata
3.207
The significance of the German scientists’ discovery centers on the fact that most knowledge
of POPs’ environmental impacts deal primarily with amphibious habitats; scientists hope to shed
light on the continental behavior of POPs through further analysation of the samples of drosophilin A
collected from the market boar meat. The team of German Scientists proliferating the investigation of
wild boar meat contamination is being led by Walter Vetter and his technical assistant Katja Lehnert
at the University of Hohenheim, one of Germany’s top-tier universities. Analytical techniques used
by Vetter and his team are known for producing incredibly accurate results: gas chromatography and
mass spectrometry, which helped the scientists confirm that the potentially toxic compound collected
from the German markets boar meat was indeed drosophilin A. Although Vetter and his colleagues
cannot pinpoint the exact species of basidiomycete ingested by the wild boar, Vetter is certain that
the boar acquired drosophilin A from consuming mushrooms as long term data suggest, based on the
fact that there are numerous mushroom species that can house the chemical organic compound that
are known to be consumed by wild boar.
Drosophilin A closely resembles a POP, known toxic industrial chemicals. What Walter
Vetter hopes to achieve is an understanding of the effects of drosophilin A on humans, because an
apparent risk will initiate recourse to prevent harm to individuals that consume wild boar meat even
if it’s (consumed) sparingly, since the intrinsic ability of POPs to remain in adipose storages.
However, Vetter and his team are hoping to discover that the wild boar has developed a defense
against the compounds undesirable effects along with coming up with an answer to the question, why
do species of basidiomycetes contain the toxic compound in the first place? Chemist Gordon W.
Gribble of Dartmouth College stated, “If the compound (drosophilin A) turns out to be nontoxic to
4
Teunissen PJM, Swarts HJ, Field JA. 1997. Screening of ligninolytic basidiomycetes for the production of
Drosophilin A (tetrachloro-4-methoxyphenol) and Drosophilin A methyl ether (tetrachloro-1,4-dimethoxybenzene).
Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. In press.
5
Bastian W. 1985. Vergleichende Untersuchungen zum Sekunda ̈rstoffwechsel an Coprophilen und Erdoder
Holzbewohnende Basidiomyceten. PhD thesis. Univ. Kaiserslautern, Germany (In German).
6
Singh P, Rangaswami S. 1966. Occurrence of O-methyl-drosophilin A in Fomes fastuosus Lev. Tetrahedron Lett.
11:1229–31.
7
Kavanagh F, Hervey A, Robbins WJ. 1952. Antibiotic substances from basidiomycetes. IX. Drosophila subarata
(Batsch:Fr) Quel. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 38:555–60.
157
the boars, it could provide useful lessons about how to construct halogenated compounds so they
don’t end up becoming a health or environmental threat.”
July 15, 1952, proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences published research on four
variations of drosophilin A pertaining to the possible antibiotic properties of the aforementioned
substances found in twelve species of basidiomycetes from nine genera; the following information
gives modern chemists an advantage in terms of analyzing the POP analogue. Antibacterial activity
was measured against seven bacteria and data showed that drosophilin A was active primarily against
only staphylophage, particularly against strains of staphylococci and B subtilis. However, the fact
remains that the inevitable production of naturally occurring drosophilin A remains as an
environmental significance.8
The National Academy of Sciences were also able to deduce information during their
experimentation in 1952 about the chemical structure and properties of drosophilin A.
Experimentation was performed by analyzing a crystalline variant of the organic compound after
firstly purified with a benzene solution and treatment with decolorizing carbon. Drosophilin A was
determined to have: a melting point of 118 °C; solubility in hexane, benzene, acetone, alcohol,
chloroform, ether and slightly soluble in water; and drosophilin A was unable to be extracted by
concentrated hydrochloric acid, which suggests that the organic compound lacks alkaline properties,
however the chemical is only slightly acidic since it was unaffected by attempts to extract
appreciable amounts with a chloroform solution containing bicarbonate. Chemists of the National
Academy of Sciences were able to determine the molar mass of drosophilin A cryoscopically in
exaltone. Drosophilin A was determined to have the empirical formula of C13H9O4Cl7.9
The fact remains that continued research surrounding drosophilin A and other drosophilins is
currently underway due to findings of the potentially fatal organic compound in food consumed by
human beings. Rigorous standards set by Germany surrounding testing for food contaminants has
proven to be effective, since it is still not known pertaining to the lethality of drosophilin A to
humans and mammals alike. Close resemblance of drosophilin A to POPs is enough motivation for
chemists to continue researching the less than well-known compound, as to prevent possible future
catastrophic events from occurring regarding potential toxicity of drosophilin A in human
populations.
8
de Jong, Ed et al. “Significant biogenesis of chlorinated aromatics by fungi in natural environments.” Applied and
environmental microbiology 60.1 (1994): 264-270.
9
The quantitative analyses and molecular weight determinations were made by the Huffman Microanalytical
Laboratories, Denver, Colo..
158
Tribute to Faculty
We warmly pay tribute to all submitting instructors, past and present.
Their dedicated and inspired teaching has contributed to
the successful publication of their students’ work
in ESSAI Volume I through Volume XII.
Deborah Adelman
Scott Albert
Jim Allen
Kathleen Altman
E. Bates
Patty Benson
Brian Blevins
Scott Boyd
Franz Burnier
Allan Carter
Tom Carter
Nancy Conradt
Sue Dreghorn
Barbara Eaton
Linda Elaine
Helen Feng
Bob Georgalas
Julie Gibbs
Gloria Golec
Ida Hagman
Naheed Hasan
Lisa Higgins
Connie C. Howard
Bill Hussong
Richard Jarman
Ellen C. K. Johnson
Daniel Kies
Dennis Korneff
Keith Krasemann
Chikako D. Kumamoto
Deb Lantermo
David Leary
Freyda Libman
Lynn Mackenzie
James M. Magrini
Heather Maher
Anne C. Malone
Nicole Matos
Jackie McGrath
Christine Monnier
Katie Nagel
Nick Obradovich
Karen Persky
Chris Petersen
Kamelia Popova
Loretta Pyrdek
Eva Maria Raepple
Lynda Randa
Kent Richter
Carol Riphenburg
Shamili Sandiford
John Santiago
Steve Schroeder
Hema Shende
Dale Simpson
Jason Snart
Alice Snelgrove
Susan Stamler
Lois Stanciak
Jodi Stapleton
Carol Strelczyk
Kathleen Szeszol
Beth Vlad
Diane Wawrejko
Ben Whisenhunt
Liz Whiteacre
James Wies
159
Cumulative Index of Student Authors
Volume I – (2002-2003)
Kristyn Bales
Virginia Bateman
Barbara Bergschicker
Hillary J. Brown
Tess Cole
Dean Costello
Joi Cuartero
Ryan Fowler
Susanne K. Frens
Alexa Greer
Thomas Hemmingsen
Karen Hess
Jennifer Hixon
Lauren Hovis
Natalie A. Howes
Beth Bednarz
Roger Darringrand
Lynn Dehlinger
Natallia Ervin
Brittany Gross
Brandi Halle
Allison Hamad
Chris Harvey
Anna Hendrey
Jennifer Hixon
Marsella Jorgolli
Michael Kundert
Sarah Magin
Daniel McCullum
Mary Meir
Andy Morris
Sarah Huber
Dara Huff
Stephanie McMahan
Rachel Meek
Andrew Morris
Stacy Nalley
Mary E. Norton
Lindsay Olsen
Ginny Pace
Megan Posch
Jason Schramm
Dan Swindle
Abe Whiting
Chin Yang
Volume II – (2003-2004)
Noorjabeen Naseer
My Nguyen
Kristopher O’Dell
Aaron Olson
Chris Orlock
Richard Payton
Nadia Qazi
Cara Raimon
Frank Redmond
Jonathan Scherer
Maya Strahl
Jasmine Thorne
Bonnie White
Michelle Ziehn
Volume III – (2004-2005)
Tanya Basu
Mary Bodine
Wendy Carpenter
Meredith Carey
Thomas Ferguson
Michael Graczyk
Victoria Graham
Sara Heppner
Benjamin Hooper
Brian Kinsman
Valentine Kopjo
Kathy Kozak
Sean Labbé
Rebecca Lunev
Karen L. Arneson
Lisa Bonomo
Steve Braun
Brian Casario
Patrick Caulfield
Joseph Cholewa
Joe Cinquegrani
Janet Crawford
Andy Dameron
Dodi Dolendi
Laura Dubberke
Heather A. Duncan
Christine Dyslin
Rebecca Eineke
Shannon Grilli
Kristina Grudem
Emily N. Hansen
Jason Hernandez
Julie McKee
Matt Naglewski
Stacy Nalley
Allan Norgaard
Jason Nosek
Richard Payton
Megan Posch
Nadia Qazi
David Rojas
Maggie Smith
Ruth Valentine
Anthony Wilder
Roberta Williams
Sharon Wussow
Volume IV – (2005-2006)
William Hodges
Benjamin Hooper
Janelle A. Jenkins
Hannah Kim
Ruslan Kochemirovskiy
Emily Krauspe
Maren Ann McKee
Tabitha Metreger
Jason Morrow
Keiko Narisako
Jeremy Shier
Jason Smith
Joan Tett
Jennifer Vail
Alicia Voss
Weien Wang
Justin Wedekind
Volume V – (2006-2007)
Karen L. Arneson
David Beck
Natalie Berent
Leslie A. Bertram
Angela Cibich
Peter Cohen
Joseph A. Deardurff
Lauren Del Carlo
Camille Diebold
Kennerly Diebold
Melissa Donahue
Christine Dyslin
Travis Farrington
Jessica Gibbs
Victoria Graham
Lucy A. Hawke
Matt Horan
Natalie Hustead
Shaina Hutson
Jenna L. Keefe
Anna Kinsella
Alison Lederer
Keelin Lord
Tracy Noeske
Zachary Peschke
160
Carey Raupp
Daniel Smith
Nicholas Treff
Ashley Urban
Alice Wieduwilt
Rutger Wolfgang Stache
Fariah Zainuddin
Ava Zandieh
Volume VI – (2007-2008)
Kristin Arita
Krystal N. Arrate
Cristina Baica
William Berkhout
Julie Bertacchi
Kavita Bhavsar
Michael Butler
Leah Cameron
Victoria Canaday
Howard
Joanna Ciesielski
Katherine Ciesla
Michael Davis
Christine Dyslin
Jessica Eller
Carrie Fenwick
Joel Griswell
Shan Haq
Jennifer Horst
Mo Ismail
Lyndon Kacick
Nick Kogos
Matthew Kos
Jenny Letourneau
Heather Lydon
Melissa Maida
Ali Malik
Margaret McNulty
Nathan Meno
Katherine Morales
Sylvia Morales
Lydia Newby
Agnes Mary Reband
Jennifer Rodriguez
Matt Sauter
Robert Schletz
Christina Scott
Tom Serb
Samantha Sferas
Judy Staiano
Kara Stevenson
Adrienne Tam
Christina Villa
Cynthia L. Witt
Volume VII – (2008-2009)
Jacob Albaugh
Ashley Aller
Kyle Berthel
Courtney Bobko
Ellen Briggs
Dave Broche
Mary Beth Broda
Patrick Buranicz
Brittany Burkes
Katherine Ciesla
Ryan Corrigan
Jonathon Drews
Bethany Ester
Aly Gentile
Tiffany Gray
Scott Hixson
Edward Hren
Grant L. Iler
Graham Johnson
Casey Jones
Susan Kareska
Sunya Kashan
Nick Kontos
Laurel Kunath
Chris Lemke
Emily Lombardi
Melissa
Mastrogiovanni
Sean McGowan
Mateja Mircic
Phuong Nguyen
Connie Padera
Harry Podschwit
Zach Porlier
Nick Rascia
Olivia Schultz
Brandon Slate
Richards Walker
Michael Wendt
Anum Zafar
Volume VIII – (2009-2010)
Kelsey Barron
Geneva Beles
Christine Berta
Lauren Blanford
Chelsey Boutan
Sarah Burgess
Stephanie Christian
Eileen Corley
Sally Jo Detloff
Justin Eberhart
Nathan Samuel Ellingsen
Danny Hankes
Max Hermann
Christopher Hunton
Nicole Anderson
Sofia Bermudez
Matt Brousil
Najah Burks-Pittman
Alicia M. Chapman
Robert de Lara
Dodi Dolendi
Tyler Eickelmann
Jennifer Elsman
Michael Halla
Chad Hochstatter
Kevin Kienitz
Michael Kintz
Theresa Kolodziej
Charise Joy Javonillo
Tim Kamin
Breanne Kanak
Julie Kelsey
Sarah Lichtenwalter
Daniel Lowder
Mandie McGlynn
Matthew Murray
Bekah Myroup
Lily Nicholson
Sean O'Leary
Tina Osornio
Sarah Oxley
M. Lisa Parenti
Zach Porlier
James T. Ricker
Shannon Rohn
Susan Schumacher
Alana Shuma
Emily Stephen
Lauren Stull
Jennifer Wendt
Amanda Woolum
Michael K. O'Malley
Jessica Otto-Rosario
Kimberly Overby
Michele Roberts
Annette Sanchez
Brittany Schweik
Alana Shuma
David Skorusa
Kasie-Marie Smith
Jeff Tosch
Allison Watts
Beth Wegner
Frederick Wennlund
Annie Werly
Erik Wright
Kari Zapletal
Patrick Noonan
Kevin Prchal
Vicki Price
Laura Romaine
Sana Shafiuddin
Sophie Shukin
John Skarha
Jessica Steslow
Marcus Tolson
Ethan Woodward
Sarah Yockey
Volume IX – (2010-2011)
Sasha Nicole Kruger
Jessica LaPlante
Kristin Liewald
Daniel Lowder
Matt MacDougall
Erin Massoni
Zuzanna Mierzejewska
Bekah Myroup
Volume X – (2011-2012)
Anna Albrecht
Lynn Altman
Karen Arneson
Dan Barclay
Matthew Brousil
Chris Burkett
Jordan Colbert
Christine Dahlson-Rutherford
Samantha De Carlo
Alec Dorner
Christina Duski
John Eed
Charles Hall
Patrick Hanes
Ian Haseltine
Ernie Koh
Nina Kokayeff
Jeff Kort
161
Volume XI – (2012-2013)
Jim Alop
Virginia Anderson
Angelo Andriopoulos
Heidi Braunschneider
Brody Challinor
Lauren Challinor
Steven Franklin
Tony Frontuto
Erna Gevondyan
Tooba Ghafoor
Ruth Groza
Ian Haseltine
Julia Andersen
Nicholas Bashqawi
Harry Bodell
Kellie Brennan
Kevin Brewton
Elizabeth Cole
Neil Davis
Kelly Donlan
Randy Dziak
Katrina Favis
Emily Garvanovic
Frank Giuliani
Martin Hayford
Grace Horn
Caleb Jenkins
Roberta Johnson
Akbar Khan
Larry Lambert
Sara Liesman
James Maguire
Danielle Meyer
Kevin Midlash
Erin Miller
William Jasen
Mummert
Carlos S. OrtegaGuerrero
Agnieszka Poznanska
Hayley Reagin
Sarah Rochford
Rebecca M. Samson
Vesal Stoakley
Thomas Struett
Matt Mazur
Virginia Meglio
Bryan Mundt
David O’Sullivan
Ashley Padavonia
Becky Reichel
Michael Robles
Dina Rudenya
Jake Sumeraj
Emily Trca
Alexandra Wickersham
Ryan Woitas
Volume XII – (2013-2014)
Hayley Hickson
Hope Javier
Jonathan Kaye
Syeda Khalid
Marie Labbe
Amanda Manton
162
ESSAI
Created in 2002 by a cross-disciplinary faculty, ESSAI,
The College of DuPage Anthology of Academic Writing
Across the Curriculum is an annual academic journal that
represents a unique but inclusive discourse community of
student writers; it fosters student success through writing
across the curriculum and in all levels of learning at
College of DuPage.
The resulting published work is their expanded
cultural and epistemological self-endowed with talent,
sophistication, and fresh scholarship, all expressed with
clarity, eloquence, and grace.
Join with us in honoring the exceptional talents of our
student authors.
Volume XII
It rests on our belief that writing empowers and prepares
our students for meaningful careers and advanced
academic pursuits and that, to realize such goals, the
entire college community is responsible for incorporating
writing into their courses as a vital part of the academic
experience at our college.
That we practice the philosophy of student success
through good writing will become even more apparent
in the journal’s name. It harkens back and pays homage
to Michel de Montaigne, whose seminal style of writing
“essais” connoted one of trials and attempts.
The College of DuPage Anthology of Academic Writing Across the Curriculum
What is Essai?
ESSAI
2013-2014
The College of DuPage Anthology of
Academic Writing Across the Curriculum
Volume XII 2013-2014