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Effects of Dryland Farming on Navajo Riparian Lands 1
Jo Ann B. Jayne 2
Abstract.--The Navajo people have
recognized that
dryland farming caused accelerated erosion, depletion of
vegetation and water shortages in their riparian zones.
Water and land resource development policies and programs
are currently being implemented to protect agricultural ·
lands.
INTRODUCTION
DESCRIPTION OF AREA
The Navajo Tribe is on the threshold of the
most extensive riparian ecosystem management planning period it has ever experienced. Comprehensive
studies made by tribal agencies on the water resources of the Navajo Reservation has clearly revealed the critical nature of Navajo water and
land resources problems.
The Navajo government administration
has
moved to enact and implement into Navajo tribal
law a water code containing new policies, standards, and procedures for rivers, streams, and
lakes.
The new policies are designed to ensure
proper use and preservation of land and water resources to protect the health, welfare, and economic security of the citizens of the Navajo Reservation. These new policies were formulated and
adopted by their governing body, the Navajo Tribal
Council, in 1984.
The People
The Navajo population is at 160,000 with about
12,000 participating in subsistence dry-land farming. It is estimated that 10,000 acres are located
within the major riparian zones.
Water is a vital element in Navajo life. It is
used sacredly in religious rites.
The clan system
is highly associated with water properties. The
Navajo origin belief is that rivers and streams are
the blood of the land as blood is to their bodies.
Location and Topography
The Navajo Reservation, comprising an area of
about 25,884 square miles, or 16,565,537 acres, is
located in the United States in northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and the southeastern
corner of Utah and is roughly the size of.West Virginia.
In support of these management efforts, budgets of the departments within the agenc1es responsible for water resources planning have been
increased significantly.
Thus the stage has been set for a large scale
endeavor to translate into action the programs
required to develop and manage water and land resources to assure an adequate, regulated supply of
quality water not only for flood control or irrigation, but also for previously more neglected purposes such as community water supply, fish and
wildlife, outdoor recreation, and the. enhancement
and protection of traditional religious practices.
Traditional dry farming techniques used by
the Navajo and their impact on the riparian zones
are discussed in this paper.
1
Paper presented at the North American Riparian Conference (University of Arizona, Tucson,
April 216-18, 1985).
Graduate
student
in
Forestry-Watershed
Management
at
the
University
of Arizona,
Tucson.
This area has within its borders a wide diversity of topography, climate, soils, vegetation and
geologic materials. It lies within the Colorado
Plateau physiographic province and has topography
typical of this province (Fenneman 1931).
In
general, it.is characterized by a rough and broken
terrain, including steep mountainous areas, plateaus, and mesas intermingled with steep canyon
walls, escarpments, and narrow valley bottoms. The
plateau and mesa tops are usually gently to strongly sloping while the sides are commonly steep to
very steep. The valley bottoms and alluvial slopes
adjacent to the intermittent drainages are dominantly gently sloping. Moderately steep and rolling
upland ridges and low hills are interspersed with
the more common landforms.
The altitude within the reservation ranges
from 2800 feet in the southwestern part where the
upper tributaries of the Little Colorado River
leave the reservation to 10,000 feet on the highest
mountain peak in the north.
479
texture, and light or reddish-brown in color.
The soils will support a pinyon-oak association in the higher elevations interspersed with big
sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Big sagebrush is
often an understory of the p1nyon-juniper. Associated shrubs and grasses are Stansbury cliffrose
(Cowania mexicana)
and
crested
wheatgrass
(Agropyron desertorum).
Lower
elevations are
character1zed by scattered pinyon-juniper, extensive areas of big sagebrush, galleta, and Indian
rice grass (Oryzopsis hymenoides).
Much of the country, however, has an altitude
that ranges between 6,000 feet and 7,800 feet.
Altitudes above 7,800 feet are mainly in the
Navajo commercial forest which lies predominantly
in the center of the reservation and constitutes
approximately four percent of the land.
Climate
The reservation generally has a semi-arid
continental climate with mean annual precipitation ranging from six inches in the southwestern
plains to twenty-five inches in the mountain
ranges along the Arizona-New Mexico border (BIA
1981).
Altitude
These areas are dominated by soils over sandstone and are deep to shallow, ioomy, dark-colored,
and with some rock outcrops. The highest elevations
are characterized by Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni i), alpine fir (Abies las i ocarpaT:Wflite fir
(Ables concolor) with outcrops of quaking aspen
(Populus tremuloides). The intermediate and lower
elevations supports stands of ponderosa pine (Pinus
ponderosa var. scopulorum) with
Colorado~
spruce (Picea pungens), wavyleaf
oak (Quercus
undulata), and p1nyon pine (Pinus edulis). Grasses
1nclude mountain muhly
(MUhlenoergla montana),
Arizona fescue (Festuca arizon1ca), and galleta.
More than forty percent of the annual precipitation falls in July through September, mostly
from heavy thunderstorms. During the summer most
moisture comes from the Gulf of Mexico, entering
the reservation from the southeast in the general
air circulation about the Bermuda high pressure
area which is displaced westward (BIA 1981).
The main source of moisture in winter is
Pacific Ocean storms moving eastward in the zonal
ci rcu l at ion. Average annual snowf a11 ranges from
less than two feet in drier sections to more than
six feet in the areas of greatest precipitation.
The season of most snowfall is November through
April.
TRADITIONAL USES OF RIPARIAN ZONES
The Navajo economy in the early 19oo•s was a
simple arrangement of subsistence exploitation of
the geographical landscape, and exchange of goods
either for other goods or for money and credit. Ali
of the exploitative and many exchange activities
were directly connected with the use of the land.
Mean annual temperatures range mostly from
48 to 52 degrees Fahrenheit. Extremes of temperature have been over 100° F. and -20° to -30° F.
in the winter (BIA 1981). May through October are
the warmest month of the year.
Subsistence Dryland Farming
Soils and Vegetation
Altitude
Farming Practices.--Corn, hay, beans, potatoes, peaches, wheat, vegetables, and melons constituted the principal non-commercial, agricultural
products in 1940. Corn brought in 39 percent of the
$450,100 income generated for that year (BIA 1941).
- 4,500 feet to 6,000 feet
The soils and climate in these areas contribute to a grassland and mixed shrubland plant
comunity. At upper elevational ranges are pinyonjuniper woodlands characterized by Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum), Utah juniper
(Juniperus osteosperma), rabb1tbrush (Chrysotham~
nauseosus),
greasewood
(Sarcobatus
and
snakeweed
(Gut1errez1a
vermiculatus),
microcephala). The grass dominated lands occur on
the deeper soils on relatively level to gently
rolling terrain.
They are characterized by red
(Aristida
longiseta), blue
grama
three-awn
(Bouteloua crac1l1s),
and
galleta (Hilaria
james11). Generally the soils are derived form
alluv1al deposits and aeobian sources and are
commonly deep,
light
in
texture,
and
reddish -brown. Rock outcrops and badlands are
prominent features in some areas.
Altitude
- 7,800 feet to 10,000 feet
Fields were small and often irregular and were
often outlined by uncleared trees, gullies, or
cliffs.
Preparation of ground for planting began at
the end of April and plowing and planting lasted
through early June. Planting was done at the time
of plowing, without any intervening ground preparation. It was often accompanied by various rites and
ritual procedures.
Straight furrows were plowed
without regard to contour. Manure or other fertilizers were seldom used, nor were fields ever intentionally followed. Insects, early frosts, and torrential rainfalls sometimes killed or washed out
whole fields of new seedlings and made replanting
necessary.
- 6,000 feet to 7,800 feet
During the busy times of plowing, planting,
cultivating, and harvesting, the cooperation among
the various kin groups was intensive.
Even so,
crops were frequently planted late and yields were
cut by early fall frosts. Total acres planted in
These areas are dominated by soils over shale
and sandstone and/or by soils in residuum and
alluvium from sandstone and redbeds.
They are
commonly deep to moderately deep, light in
480
1941 was 32,201 acres with 29,840
year ( BIA 1941).
The.history of water resource planning on the
Navajo Reservation is dominated by periodic adaptation to the demands for use of water by its growing
population and increasing economic activity.
harvested that
Field Location and Water Sources.--Field location was dependent upon water sources from 1)
rainfall, 2) groundwater, or 3) floodwater from
surf ace flooding of ephemera 1 streams.
Fields dependent
in these areas:
There was early recognition of the multipleuse possibilities of water projects and of the
interrelationship of the water and land resources
within stream and river basins by the local people.
In spite of the intensive thought and effort given
to this subject and the encouraging developments in
the past few years, the Navajo Tribe still lacks a
fully coordinated policy and a definite, sound
program for riparian ecosystem planning of its
streams and rivers.
upon rainfall were located
A.
On high alluvial plateaus with deep
drainage lines. Soils are shallow, residual
sandy loam derived from sandstone and shale.
In contrast to past case by case project
authorizations, the Navajo has now developed a
water code. With its prospective on the pressing
water needs of the next few decades, this code can
augment desirability for action and reiterate the
need for comprehensive water resources development.
B.
On thin aeolian soils over lava beds.
Soils are shallow, clay loam derived from
basalt.
Fields primarily watered by surface runoff or
by ground water moisture were located in these
areas:
A. On flood plains or flat stream terraces of
larger valleys.
B.
The stage for progress has been set further by
the accumulated weight of:
1)
water policy
regulation, 2) improvement of standards and techniques for formulation and evaluation, and 3) experiments in interagency planning.
On bottoms of small, deep, sandy canyons.
C. Near upper ends of canyons or valleys, or
on colluvial and alluvial outwash slopes.
However, water and land resources will always
be threatened regardless of ownership and laws.
Each segment of the Navajo population has an important stake in the proper development of water
resources.
EFFECTS OF DRYLAND FARMING
An accelerated erosion cycle beginning shortly after the practice of dryland farming caused a
shift of land holdings. Many farms once advantagely located for water became useless and were abandoned because of gullying and trenching. This was
especially true in the regions where floodwater
irrigation was practiced. Fields formerly supplied
by floodwater had become dependent on rainfall.
Farmers were gradually forced by terrain changes
and landownership problems toward cultivation of
fields farther away from the riparian zones.
It has not yet been clearly defined either in
general pol icy statements nor in actual experience
how comprehensive water resources development plans
should be implemented and sustained on the Navajo
Reservation. However, water resource development
programs on the Navajo Reservation should maximize
their contrtbution to economic growth and represent
efficient low cost means of obtaining the products
or services they provide.
LITERATURE CITED
Navajo impact on riparian zones essentially
began with the development of dryland farming.
Trees and other vegetation were removed for agriculture and houses.
Diversion of water from
streams and
rivers created water
shortages.
Erosion was accelerated as vegetative cover was
removed.
Fenneman, N.M. 1931. Physiography of the Western
United States. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York.
U.S.
The Navajo people have recognized that soil
erosion from early dryland farming has caused, in
part, the damages of down-stream areas. These
areas lie idle today.
Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian
Affairs.
1941. Statistical summary, human
dependency survey, Navajo Reservation.
1940.
108 p.
u.s.
CONCLUSION
481
Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian
Affairs.
Navajo
Water
Resources
1981.
Evaluation. Volume II, Part I. p. 1-2.