Njála – The Saga of Burnt Njal
• Njala was composed around 1300, dealing with
events from 930 – 1020 AD.
• It is the longest, the most sophisticated, and
perhaps the finest example of saga art –
considered by many the national epic of Iceland.
• Over 600 characters, from the sublime and tragic,
to the sinister or simply comic.
• Author is unknown, but most evidence points to
a single composer who united several oral and
written sources to compose his own work of art.
Njála – Basic Information
• Njála can be divided into roughly three sections:
• Gunnar’s exploits and death
• Njal’s family and his death
• Kari’s vengeance and reconciliation
• The saga juxtaposes a heroic, Viking age
mentality with a modern, Christian ethos.
• Christian and pagan world views are balanced in
the saga, as our views of liberty and law,
vengeance and forgiveness, the individual and
the collective.
Njála – History
• Critics have been divided whether to treat Njála
as a work of history or a work of literature.
Obviously it contains elements of both, but
generally one can say that the author uses
historical events to explore aspects of human
nature.
• Some critics see Njála as a form of Historical
Novel, as a work dealing indirectly with the
concerns of the age in which it was created, the
turbulent period when the Icelandic Republic
collapsed (1262).
Njála – History
How did the saga come to be composed?
• 250-300 year gap between the events of the saga and its
composition. Oral history.
• Many events are taken from later written sources, such
as the conversion of Iceland, the legal debates, the battle
of Clontarf in Ireland.
• The “Free Prose Theory” – traditional stories simply
written down according to rules of oral narration.
• The “Book Prose Theory” – a writer/editor collects oral
tales and rearranges/adapts them for a written text that
mirrors rules of oral narration. This theory is much more
likely.
Timeline of Icelandic History
Njála – Style and Form
• Njála has been called “the finest example of art
without art,” and “the despair of translators,” a
masterpiece of story telling, smooth and plain.
• A narrator exists, but conceals himself behind
the apparently objective portrayal of characters.
• The narrator presents no interior descriptions,
explains no motivation, and provides no
commentary (except that of “everyone” or “most
people”).
• Characters are what they say and what they do–
most scenes contain important bits of dialogue!
Njála – Genre
• Of the four great Icelandic family sagas (Egils
saga, Eyrbyggja Saga, Laxdæla saga), Njála is
the longest and most complicated.
• Njála contains many different themes:
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Saga of constitutional history and saga of law
Saga of passion, love, and marriage
Saga of the conversion of Iceland
Saga of family feud and violent lawlessness
Saga of heroic adventure
Saga of Christian reconciliation
Saga of pagan wisdom, fate and fatality
Njála – Verisimilitude
• Njála, like all Icelandic Family Sagas, purports
to represent real local history.
• People are given real names and real family
ancestries, which link them to real places.
• Njal’s farm at Bergthorsknoll still exists,
evidence of a burning there from the proper time.
• “Factual” evidence provides the saga with a
sense of legitimacy – proof for the reader –
though it is impossible to determine how much is
really true.
• Sagas a form of “serious entertainment.”
Njála – Foreshadowing
• In Njála, as in most sagas, the authors are dealing
with tales well-known to their audiences.
• Suspense – what will happen next? – does not
exist in a modern sense.
• Elements of foreshadowing – dreams, omens,
portents, etc. – remind the audience of what is to
come, and they provide the saga with coherence,
uniting earlier and later episodes.
• The attention of the audience is focused on how
and why things happen, not on twists of the plot.
• Readers have to pay close attention!
Njála – Plot Elements
• According to scholar T.M. Anderson, there are 6
key elements to the narrative structure of family
sagas:
1. Introduction
2. Conflict
3. Climax
4. Revenge (repeat as necessary)
5. Reconciliation
6. Aftermath
Njála – 1.
• The saga begins with Mord Gigja (Fiddle), a
powerful chieftain (goði), who lived at Rangriver
Plains (Rangarvellir), in southern Iceland.
• Mord has a beautiful daughter called Unn (3).
• At Breidafjord, near Laxardal in West Iceland,
lives Hoskuld Dala-Kollsson, who has a halfbrother Hrut (3).
• Hrut has a niece Hallgerd, who is a beautiful
young girl at the time (3) – the long hair will
show up again at an important juncture in the
saga.
The World of the Icelandic Sagas
Map of Iceland
Most of the action in Njála takes place in southwest Iceland. Njal’s
and Gunnar’s farms are near the coast, directly north of the
Vestmannaeyjar. It is about a two-day horse ride to Thingvellir.
Hrútsstaðir in western Iceland. Like many of the saga locations, this
farm has the same name after 1000 years.
Höskuldsstaðir, a few miles up the road from Hrut’s farm. Emily
Lethbridge has documented most sites in Njála: http://sagamap.hi.is/is/
Njála – 1-2.
• Hrut makes an ominous comment about Hallgerd (4):
“The child is quite beautiful, and many will pay for
that; but what I don’t know is how the eyes of a thief
have come into our family.”
• Hallgerd is one of the most controversial characters in
the saga. She later plays a central role.
• Hoskuld and Hrut ride to the Althing, the national
Assembly held at Thingvellir for two weeks in late
June.
• Hoskuld suggests that Hrut marry Unn, though Hrut is
unsure “whether we are meant to be happy together” (4).
• An example of second sight, ability to see the future.
Njála – 2.
• Hoskuld and Mord settle on terms to ensure that Unn
will keep her wealth in her marriage (5).
• The call witnesses to seal the bargain, the wedding will
take place that summer.
• Witnesses are necessary in oral cultures. They provide
for the regulation of social order, for the public
recognition of property rights, contracts, and
relationships.
• Hrut learns that his brother Eyvind has died, and that he
must go to Norway to claim his inheritance.
• Hrut meets with Mord, and they agree to postpone the
wedding for 3 years.
Njála – 3.
• Harald Grey-Cloak is King of Norway (961-970 AD),
and rules with his mother, Queen Gunnhild.
• In Egil’s saga, Gunnhild has the character of an
ambitious and sexually voracious woman.
• Gunnhild promises Hrut her aid in recovering his
money, and Ozur tells him it would be wise to accept
her “generosity” (7).
• Hrut meets the king, asks to become a retainer;
Gunnhild supports his request.
• That evening, Queen Gunnhild makes Hrut a
proposition he cannot refuse…(cite 9)
• Hrut takes a place of honor; spends the winter.
Njála – 4-5.
• A man named Soti has stolen Hrut’s inheritance;
Gunnhild and the king give Hrut ships and Ulf
the Unwashed to aid his search.
• Hrut sails into the pirate Atli Arnvidarson, and
they fight a Viking sea battle (cite 11).
• Hrut kills Atli, but Ulf the Unwashed dies.
• Like all Icelanders in the story, Hrut finds great
success in mercenary activities in Norway.
• Soti is found, arrested and hanged.
• Hrut collects his inheritance, gives Queen
Gunnhild half in gratitude for her aid.
Njála – 6-7.
• Hrut wants to leave Norway; he lies to Gunnhild
about the reason (12).
• She is upset and curses him for lying (cite 13).
• Hrut returns to Iceland and marries Unn.
• Their marriage remains unconsummated, and
eventually Unn determines to divorce Hrut.
• Unn visits her father at the Althing, tells him the
reason for her marital unhappiness (cite 15f.).
• Mord tells Unn the proper legal procedure for
executing a divorce (cite 16). Women have more
equality in Iceland than elsewhere at this time.
Njála – 8.
• At the Althing, Mord puts forward a claim for the
return of his daughter Unn’s dowry (and Hrut’s
contribution to the marriage agreement!).
• Hrut refuses to pay and challenges Mord to a
duel – Holmganga, or island-going – which in
the early years of the Icelandic Republic was an
accepted means of deciding legal disputes.
• Old Mord has no wish to fight the tough Hrut, so
he lets his claim fall, earning ridicule.
• Hrut keeps the money of Unn’s dowry.
• Who was right and who was wrong?
The Legal Courts
of the Althing
in Republican
Iceland
Njála – 9-10.
• Hallgerd grows up to be a beautiful, but willful
and impetuous woman (cite 18).
• Hallgerd has been raised by her foster-father,
Thjostolf, an insanely jealous and violent man.
• Fostering another’s child was a way to cement
bonds between families; the subordinate man
usually did the fostering; the father kept final
authority over the child.
• Hoskuld, Hallgerd’s father, decides to marry her
to Thorvald, without informing her.
• Hallgerd thinks the man beneath her, but agrees.
Njála – 10-11.
• Thjostolf comforts Hallgerd, saying that he will
take care of her first marriage (20).
• The wedding is large and happy, though Hrut
senses that it will have no luck.
• At the wedding, we are introduced to Svan, an
evil magician related to Hallgerd.
• Hallgerd is wasteful, but blames her new
husband; in fury, he strikes her in the face (21).
• Thjostolf finds Thorvald, insults him and then
plants his axe in husband #1’s skull (cite 22).
• The insult provided an excuse to begin the fight.
Njála – 12.
• When Hallgerd sees his bloody axe, Thjostolf tells
her that he has arranged it so that she can get a
better marriage.
• Hallgerd sends him to hide with evil Svan in the
hills; Svan is impressed by the murder (23).
• Osvif gathers his friends and family to seek
vengeance against Thjostolf.
• Svan uses magic to send fetches (fylgja) and fog
against the party, and they turn back (cite 24)
• Osvif goes to Hoskuld and asks for compensation;
Hrut advises him to pay up and sets price (25).
Duty of Revenge and Right of Inheritance
Njála – 13-15.
• Glum Olafsson now wants to marry Hallgerd;
his brother warns him, but he persists (27).
• Hoskuld tells Glum about all her assets and
defects, and they discuss the matter with
Hallgerd, who is not averse to the marriage.
• The marriage starts out well and happy, and a
daughter Thorgerd is born (29).
• Thjostolf wears out his welcome at Hoskuld’s
house and goes to visit Hallgerd.
• Hallgerd talks Glum into letting Thjostolf stay at
their farm.
Njála – 16-17.
• Thjostolf refuses to work, and when Hallgerd defends
him, Glum quarrels with her and slaps her (31).
• She is upset, but loves Glum deeply and forbids
Thjostolf from doing anything.
• Thjostolf waits for a moment alone, then axes beloved
Glum, husband #2 (cite 32).
• When Hallgerd sees the bloody axe, she guesses the
truth and laughs!
• Hallgerd sends Thjostolf to Hrut.
• What is her intention? Save him or doom him? What do
you think?
Njála – 17-18.
• Hrut does not care for Thjostolf’s madness, and
kills him straight away (33).
• Brother Thorarin asks for compensation for
Glum – his claim is weak because Hrut has
already killed Thjostolf – but he is given
compensation by Hoskuld and Hrut anyway (34).
• These gifts – and a cloak – are a sign of great
nobility and generosity of spirit.
• Petite Unn, meanwhile, has squandered her
wealth. Her father is dead and so she turns to
assistance to another relative – Gunnar.
Njála – 19-21.
• Gunnar Hamundarson of Hlidarendi; a farmer
and an ideal hero (cite 34f.).
• Njal Thorgeirsson of Bergthorshvol, wealthy
and wise, and extremely skilled at law, but could
not grow a beard (cite 35f.).
• Njal has a wife, Bergthora, who is courageous,
but more than a little harsh-natured.
• Impoverished Unn comes to Gunnar for aid – she
wants his assistance to recover her dowry from
Hrut (36).
• Gunnar goes to his friend Njal for advice.
Gunnar’s Farm at Hliðarendi
Njal’s Farm at Bergþórshvoll
Bergþórshvoll – now a bed and breakfast!
Bergþórshvoll
Njála – 22-24.
• Njal instructs Gunnar how to revive the case
against Hrut– basically an elaborate trick (37f.).
• Gunnar carries out Njal’s instructions.
• Hoskuld has a dream of a huge bear – Gunnar’s
fetch (40). Hoskuld and Hrut realize that it must
have been Gunnar, acting on the advice of Njal.
• Gunnar presents the case at the Althing, but then
opts to challenge Hrut to a duel (42).
• Is it poetic justice that Hrut is humiliated at the
Althing, exactly as he humiliated Mord?
Njála – 24-25.
• Hrut has no chance against Gunnar, so he gives in
and pays up, seething with anger.
• Hrut and Hoskuld foresee only bad luck and
trouble for Gunnar and his ill-gotten money (42).
• Gunnar gives Unn her dowry back.
• Unn marries Valgard the Grey and has a son,
Mord, who is jealous, malicious and cunning (43).
• Njal’s three sons are:
• Skarp-Hedin – extremely strong, scathing, and ugly
• Grim – strong and handsome
• Helgi – strong, handsome and even-tempered
Njála – 26-30.
• Njal marries Helgi to Thorhalla and takes her
brother Thorhall as a foster son, teaches him law.
(Thorhall takes over the lawsuit later).
• Gunnar and his brother Kolskegg travel abroad,
leaving their farms Njal’s hands.
• Gunnar travels to Norway at the time of Earl
Hakon Sigurdarson (970-995), raids in Baltic.
• They meet pirates and engage in a Viking sea
battle (48).
• Gunnar attacks Vikings in a second battle (49f.),
and is again victorious.
Njála – 31-32.
• Travel abroad was necessary to prove the worth
of a hero. The author of Njála probably was not
well acquainted with the rest of Scandinavia.
• Foreign countries have an exotic, legendary feel
in this saga – magical lands of larger-than-life
adventures. Gunnar’s adventures in the Baltic
establish his reputation as a great warrior.
• Gunnar travels to Denmark and meets King
Harald Gormsson. Exchange of gifts (50).
• Gunnar travels to Norway and meets Earl Hakon,
who also gives him gifts.
Njála – 32-33.
• Gunnar returns home to Iceland a famous man –
but Njal warns him that many people will be
jealous of his good fortune (52).
• Gunnar will be tested again. He “wants to get
along well with everyone,” but he will have to
defend himself.
• Gunnar goes to the Althing against the advice of
Njal. He makes a very strong impression.
• Gunnar meets Hallgerd, who speaks to him
boldly, and they fall instantly in love (53). He
thinks about marriage at once.
Njála – 33-34.
• Gunnar goes to his old adversaries Hrut and Hoskuld
and asks for Hallgerd’s hand.
• Hrut is not averse to the match, but wants to be “entirely
honest” about Hallgerd – so that he does not get Gunnar
as his enemy later (54). She can be difficult…
• Njal is displeased when he hears about the plan –
prophesy that she will cause trouble (54).
• A large wedding takes place; a guest, Thrain Sigfusson,
is smitten by 14-year-old Thorgerd (Hallgerd’s
daughter), divorces his wife and asks for Thorgerd’s
hand immediately (56).
• What does this say about Thrain’s character? What will
we expect from his behavior in the future?
Njála – 35-36.
• Feud: Gunnar is a guest at Njal’s farm, and their two
wives start a quarrel over seating arrangements (57), but
Gunnar breaks it up.
• Public displays of honor are important. Is Hallgerd being
disrespected? Does she have cause for vengeance?
• First violence: while Gunnar and Njal attend the Althing,
Hallgerd sends her servant Kol to kill Bergthora’s servant
Svart (58f.).
• The message is sent to Gunnar at the Althing; he asks
Njal to name his own compensation (59).
• When Skarp-Hedin sees the money, he says “it may turn
out to be useful,” and grins (61).
• What does this say about Skarp-Hedin’s character?
Njála – 37-38.
• Retaliation I: Bergthora sends Atli to kill Kol (62).
• Skarp-Hedin has his usual comment (63) – Njal pays
Gunnar the same compensation set earlier.
• Atli stays despite the risk, asks only that no slavepayment be made as compensation (63).
• Compensation (Wergild) is a peaceful means of settling
disputes. There is a recognition of loss and an obligation
to pay for that loss. Both sides can save face.
• Why does compensation here fail to stop the killing?
• Retaliation II. Brynjolf the Unruly kills Atli (64).
• Njal sets compensation here at 100 ounces of silver (up
from 12 ounces for the slaves).
Njála – 39-42.
• Retaliation III. Bergthora sends Thord Freedmansson
to kill Brynjolf the Unruly (67). Thord is a peaceful
man and foster-father to all of Njal’s sons. Escalation!
• Note that Bergthora’s men seem to fight more fairly
than Hallgerd’s.
• Njal returns Gunnar his money as compensation.
• Thord has a vision of a bloody dead goat – Njal says
that was his fetch (animal spirit), a vision that his death
is now fated (69).
• One’s fetch can sense death coming; it will take its
leave shortly before you die – that is when you can see
it!
Njála – 39-42.
• Retaliation IV: Hallgerd sends her son-in-law Thrain
Sigfusson with Sigmund and Skold to kill Thord.
• Thrain stays back while the other two slay Thord (71) –
this is considered a “grave crime.”
• Why did Thrain stay back during the killing? Is he just
as culpable, even if he did not participate directly in
the killing? How will the Njalssons feel about him after
this?
• Njal assesses Thord’s death at 200 ounces of silver, or
double compensation; Gunnar pays the full amount.
• The Njalssons agree to their father’s settlement, but
their tolerance has reached its limit.
Njála – 43-44.
• Insult to Injury: Hallgerd thinks up an insult to
Njal and his sons, and Sigmund sets it to verse
(74).
• Slander was considered a serious crime: in a
sense, it is “stealing” from someone’s reputation.
• Repeating such an insult in public would
absolutely demand vengeance to restore honor!
• Gunnar is furious when he hears the slander of
his friends, but the Njalssons are outraged –
goaded by Bergthora, they pursue Sigmund
(75f.).
Njála – 45.
• Retaliation V: Skarp-Hedin kills Sigmund, while Grim
and Helgi dispatch Skuld. Their half-brother Hoskuld
stays back (77).
• Skarp-Hedin sends Sigmund’s head to Hallgerd!
• Gunnar declares that the actions of the Njalssons were
justified and does nothing about the deaths.
• Three years later, Njal insists on paying for Sigmund (200
ounces, but nothing at all for Skuld).
• Paying nothing in compensation for someone means that
his life was literally not worth a damn.
• Njal and Gunnar have maintained their friendship despite
their wives’ feud – this is an example of uncommon
restraint!
Njála – 46-49.
• Petite Unn’s son Mord Valgardsson introduced:
cunning, vicious and jealous of Gunnar (79).
• Otkel and scoundrel Skamkel refuse to sell to
Gunnar in a time of famine.
• Gunnar picks up worthless slave Melkolf, whom
Hallgerd sends on an errand of theft and arson at
the home of Otkel and Skamkel (81).
• Gunnar is outraged to find stolen cheese at home
and slaps Hallgerd – she vows vengeance! (82).
• Otkel and Skamkel go to evil Mord – who takes
their money to find evidence of Hallgerd’s theft.
Mord Valgardsson’s farm at Stóra-Hof
The farmhouse was relocated in the 1700s due to soil erosion from overgrazing.
Otkell’s farm at Kirkjubær
Mt. Hekla is in the background. This farm is not far from Mord’s estate at Hof. The
farm seems to still have a good amount of hay. But is it for sale?
Njála – 49-51.
• Gunnar offers Otkel generous compensation for his
wife’s cheese theft, but Otkel is goaded by Skamkel into
rejecting it.
• Skamkel asks Gizur the White to set the fine for
Gunnar—but he returns and tells alie: he claims Gizur
advised him to accuse Gunnar of theft!
• Showdown at the Althing: legal and semi-legal
maneuverings by Gunnar and Njal (87ff.).
• Gunnar argues that the (knowlingly) false accusation is
slander, and he demands compensation for the crime.
• Gunnar is awarded self-judgment, and declares all sins
have cancelled each other out (89).
• Everything is quiet “for a while.”
Njála – 52-54.
• Otkel rides an unruly horse into Gunnar and
draws blood – an inflicted wound which
provides cause for retribution. Gunnar tells his
neighbors so that he will have witnesses.
• Gunnar hears that Otkel is passing back nearby
and has heard of insults (crying) spread by
Skamkel; he takes his magic halberd and makes
short work of the entire group (cite 92f.).
• Brother Kolskegg arrives to kill one of the eight.
• Gunnar unsure if he is less manly than others
because he is so reluctant to kill (93)!
Njála – 55-58.
• Njal gives Gunnar good advice at “the start of his
career of killing” (94).
• Geir the Priest prepares a court case against
Gunnar for the slaying of his relative Otkel.
• Gunnar declares the actions null and void (Otkel
was outlaw); accuses Geir of misuse of the law!
• Njal persuades them to reach a settlement (97).
• New Conflict:
• Starkad wants to pit his Red Stallion against
Gunnar’s Black Stallion, but Hildigunn warns
him about Gunnar’s “good luck” (99).
Njála – 58-61.
• Gunnar agrees to the horse-fight, but Njal warns
him that it will have consequences.
• Horse-fight leads to a real fight; Thorgeir knocks
out Black’s eye, and Gunnar puts Black down.
• Gunnar challenges Ulf Uggason at the Althing
and thus wins a case for his friend Asgrim –
Gunnar is earning more and more enemies!
• Njal warns Gunnar to be cautious and to take the
Njalssons with him to prevent any attack (102f.).
• Gunnar visits Asgrim without the Njalssons;
Starkad gets a posse of 30 men for ambush.
Njála – 62-67.
• Gunnar has a dream of fighting a pack of wolves;
sees his youngest brother Hjort fall (105). Fate.
• Knafahills Ambush: 30 vs. 3, but the odds are
not good enough: 14 attackers perish, Hjort falls
at the hands of the Easterner Thorir (106f.).
• Njal plans a legal defense for Gunnar – assign
counter-claims for those he has killed (108).
• Showdown at the Althing: Njal outmaneuvers
his opponents, eventually Hjalti Skeggjason
arranges a settlement to avoid bloodshed (112).
• Evil Mord Valgardsson plots to defeat Gunnar.
Njála – 67-70.
• Mord’s jealousy (and knowledge of Njal’s
omens) lead him to manipulate others against
Gunnar – especially sons of the slain: Thorgeir
Otkelsson and Thorgeir Starkadsson.
• Both Thorgeirs plot an ambush of Gunnar, but
Njal has a vision of sleeping fetches (115). He
scares them away and threatens a court case!
• Njal arbitrates that case at the next Althing–
famous quote about law in Iceland (cite 117).
• Njal wins the dispute and takes the money – in
case Gunnar needs to pay it back later… (117).
Njála – 70-73.
• Olaf the Peacock gives his friend Gunnar three
gifts, including the dog, Sam (117).
• Evil Mord Valgardsson and both Thorgeirs plot
again – seduce Gunnar’s relative Ormhild to get
his threats (and thus justify retaliation)!
• Ambush at Rang River: Gunnar & Kolskegg kill
several, including Thorgeir Otkelsson (119f.).
• Njal warns Gunnar that he has violated his
warning not to kill twice in the same family!(120).
• Gizur the White charges Gunnar with Full
Outlawry! (cite 121)
Njála – 74-75.
• Njal manages to arrange a settlement through
arbitration (see p. 122):
• Compensation determined and paid (same amount
previously paid to Gunnar!)
• Gunnar and Kolskegg sentenced to Lesser Outlawry –
leave for three years, or else!
• Njal reminds Gunnar that he must leave Iceland or
bad things will happen (cite 122).
• Gunnar makes plans to leave, but finds himself too
homesick to leave (cite 123).
• Gizur the White proclaims Gunnar a Full Outlaw.
Hlidarendi
Njála – 75-77.
• Gunnar’s enemies now make open plans to attack
him – no fear of retribution since he is outlawed.
• They threaten a neighbor of Gunnar’s to lure out
his dog Sam, which they kill (126). Gunnar hears
the howl and prepares for a fight.
• Black Humor: “Is Gunnar at home?” (126).
• Gunnar thinks of humiliating them while besieged
in his own home! (127).
• An attacker severs his bow string – he asks
Hallgerd for some hair, but she refuses, citing his
previous slap (128).
Njála – 77-79.
• “…until at last they killed him.” (128)
• “The slaying was spoken badly of in all parts of the
land, and his death brought great sorrow to many.”
• People hear singing in Gunnar’s burial mound;
Skarp-Hedin and Hogni Gunnarsson investigate
and watch him singing triumphantly inside (130).
• Skarp-Hedin takes the song as a portent – Gunnar
wants vengeance! He and Hogni set out at once.
• More pagan imagery: magic halberd sings, talk of
Valhalla, two ravens accompany the heroes. (131).
• They kill many, Mord the Coward begs for mercy.
Njála – 80-86.
• Kolskegg travels abroad, has a dream that leads to
his conversion to Christianity. He travels to
Constantinople, becomes leader of the Varangian
Guard, and “is now out of this saga” (133).
• Thrain Sigfusson (who married 14-year-old
Thorgerd) goes to Norway and wins glory at court.
• Grim and Helgi Njalssons go to the Orkneys, fight
in unequal battle against Vikings, but are rescued
by Kari Solmundarson (137f.).
• They serve Earl Sigurd of Orkney: Helgi has
second sight like Njal. Battles in Scotland.
Njála – 87-88.
• Hrapp the Scoundrel travels from Iceland to
Norway, stays with Earl Gudbrand, seduces and
impregnates his daughter, kills an overseer, and
flees into the woods.
• Hrapp the Killer visits the daughter, raids and
desecrates the pagan temple. He flees to the
Njalssons; they refuse help, but Thrain Sigfusson
decides to hide him (146f.).
• Thrain takes Killer-Hrapp back to Iceland, where
he lives near Hallgerd (“some say that he seduced
her…”) – two evil characters together.
Thrain’s farm at Grjótá
This farm lies a few miles to the west of Gunnar’s farm, along the same ridge.
Njála – 89-91.
• Earl Hakon chases the Njalssons believing they were party
to Hrapp’s escape; he captures them alive after a difficult
fight (150).
• Helgi and Grim escape and find Kari who protects them
from the Earl; his son Eirik offers a settlement and the
Icelanders feast for a winter and then go raiding in
Scotland.
• Back in Iceland, Kari marries Helga Njalsdottir and settles
near the Njalssons.
• The humiliation by the Earl hurts their pride and leads to a
desire for vengeance against those who caused the problem.
• Njalssons are upset with Thrain and Hrapp for getting them
in trouble with the Earl.
Njála – 91-92.
• Njalssons want compensation for their injuries, but
Thrain–with his friends Killer-Hrapp and Grani
Gunnarsson (who takes after his mother Hallgerd)
–escalates his abuse of the Njalssons (155).
• Kari and 4 Njalssons visit Thrain and trade insults
instead of a settlement (155f.).
• Skarp-Hedin does not bother to name witnesses to
the insults – he intends to answer with weapons!
• Bergthora hears that Thrain will be traveling and
tells her sons, who attack despite the odds (159).
• Skarp-Hedin’s famous ice attack (cite 159f.).
Rauðaskriður
Rauðaskriður
Rauðaskriður – view down the hill
Skarphedinn kills Thrain
Njála – 92-94.
• Kari and the Njalssons kill Hrapp and a few others, but
spare the lives of the “puppies” – a biting insult to the
young men.
• Ketil of Mork is in an impossible situation: He is Njal’s
son-in-law but also Thrain’s brother. He arbitrates a
settlement between the families: Njal pays the entire
amount.
• Ketil takes Hoskuld Thrainsson (son of 14-year-old-bride
Thorgerd) as foster-son.
• Njal is desperate to resolve this conflict and heal the hurt
feelings on both sides.
• Njal adopts Hoskuld as his own son – an attempt to create
bonds of family to undo enmity of feud (162).
Njála – 94.
• Hoskuld Thrainsson grows up to be a fine man,
gentle and generous, kind and skillful (162).
• Hoskuld enjoys the friendship of the Njalssons,
even though Skarp-Hedin killed his father, Thrain.
Somewhat artificial brotherly love.
• Njal’s wisdom and foresight – and especially his
willingness to seek a settlement and pay
generously for the deeds of his sons – leads to a
period of peace in the saga.
• A change of emphasis from a code of vengeance to
a code of forgiveness coinciding with the
conversion of Iceland to Christianity?