WATEH WASTE IN CITIES AnD
~W~NS OF P~lENTION.
by
THESIS
COUHs:m I.
?~ass8.(.:hv.setts Insti
1908.
tute
of Technology
INDEX~
Part I"
Part II.
PAGE.
Importance and Significance of the
Problem of Water Waste and its
Preventlon.
1
Water Waste and Prevention in
European Cities.
6
Part III. General Aspect of the Problem
in k~erlcan Cities.
Part IV.
26
Water Waste and its Prevention
in New York City.
28
Water Waste and its Prevention
in Boston, Hass.
40
Water Waste and its Prevention
in Chicago.
69
Part VII. Water Waste and its Prevention
in the Smaller American
Cities.
72
Part V.
Part VI.
Part VIII. The Effect of Meters on
Consu.mption.
105
Part IX.
General Conclusions.
135
Part X.
Correspondence showing
most Recent Data
140
~-_._-_.
_
...- .._._--------
PART I.
The problem o~ Waste and its Prevention
in City Water Supply Systems is by no means a new
one.
On the contrary, this problem originated
with the city water supply and grew as the cities
grew, but, like other municipal problems, it long
escaped attention and eluded scientific study and
treatment until the enormous cost
or
further in-
creasing city water systems or the impossibility
of securing more water sheds, made it imperative
to conserve the already existing water supplyFrom the time of the Romans and their great aqueducts,
Which undoubtedly leaked and most certainly wasted
great quantities
the beginning
or
water by evaporation, down to
of the last century, waste in water
supply systems was ignored or considered unpreventable.
By this time, cities had become so large,
so densely populated and in such close proximity to
one another that the problem of supplying their inhabitants with water began to assume hitherto un3uspacted importance.
Cities litigated with neigh-
boring cities for the possession of the surrounding
water sheds and it was only after they had exllausted
every available source of supply obtainable at reason-
able exp9nse that the problem of suppressing waste
and using their available supplies to the best advantage was seriously considered.
problem of water waste, embracing
~~9
as it does every phase or the science of supplying
densely populated areas with sufficient water at
mlni~R~
cost is a broad SUbject and is influenced
by many different
factors.
In fact, as it is a
problem which deals primarily with humanity it is
at the outset
one of great uncertainty.
However,
since it possesses three distinct phases: human,
mechanical, and natural, all the difficulties with
Which to be contented fall under the following three
heads:
(1)
Difficulties in determining what is il-
legitimate use of water taken directly from the supply pipes.
By illegitimate use wilful waste is
understood_
(2)
Difficulties in collecting and correctly
interpreting the collected data.
(3)
Difficulties arising from human and mechan-
ical inefficiency.
3.
In regard to the first, waste avoidable
or unavoidable begins with evaporation trom the
reservoir and continues through leaky joints as
the water passes through the pipes and pumps of
tlie system until it reaches the last house, where
perhaps it escapes to the sewer through a tap left
running continually to keep the house pipes from
freezing-
All losses in a system cannot be charac-
terized as "waste" and just what should be considered as the illegitimate use of water is a much
controverted
SUbject among writers on "water wasten•
Some assert that inasmuch as Americans use about
twice the quantity of water in flushing toilet
room appurtenances
that Europeans do, that such ex-
cess constitutes waste on the part of the former
and also that careless running of drinking fountains
and flushing sewers with drinkable water are also
sources
or
waste.
Others even go farther and claim,
that when a watering cart is allowed to overflow at
a standpipe and then by its slow locomotion floods
the street instead of sprinkling it, water is being
wasted~ j]1
•
S1~naI;6a.;r
•
4.
Conc9rnlng the second, the amount of
water used by a cOl~~unity is very often estimated
from the records of the pumps.
Pump records are
no good unless the slippage of the pump is accurately known and considered.
Per c~ita
consumption is
u.~certain since the number of resident and nonresident users of water is almost impossible to determine.
The presence of large consumers metered
or unmetered as factories, breweries, and other
manufacturing places produces various effects.
effect may be a large
nper
The
capita" consumption or a
small "per capita" consumption according to the number of factories and magnitude of the factory class
of people.
The amount of water used for fires is
sometimes definite and sometimes very indefinite.
Changes taking place in the classes of people and
number
or
large consumers of water must be taken
into consideration When drawing conclusions from
data collected in a municipality.
Great care should
also be shown in determining correctly
really the waste 1s due.
to what
In respect to the third, no matter how
good a mechanical means may be, it will not contlnue eff~cientlY to perform its duty unless kept
in perfect .adjustment diligently.
ad because of lack of care.
Meters have fa1l-
It is found that after
a rew years they become almost useless unless clean-
ed.
An efficient inspection is probably the most
intellieant mea~s of checking waste but the trouble
is this: how can the inspectors be made efficient
unless political inspection is eliminated?
In spite of the manifest uncertainties
involved in any quantitative calculation of water
waste, many engineers have taken the results of
a single satisfactory test or set of tests and have
concluded that the system of prevention there used
was the best and have urged its adoption in any
or all cities without regard to local conditions.
Realizing the futility of reco~~ending
any method
of preventing waste for unknown local conditions,
~e have
I
not attempted to draw any conclusions, exbept
of the most general nature as to the best system of
waste prevention.
In our review of the literature on Water
Waste and its Prevention we shal1 first briefly take
up the problem and the way it has been met in European
cities and then in a more lengthy digest cover its
treatment in the leading American citiese
6.
PART II.
WATER WASTE Al~ PREVENTION
IN EUROPEAJT CITIES.
Liverpoo~!_
Liverpool about 1873 began an investigation
to reduce the consumption of water.
it the magnitude
In order to lim-
of the problem and to make the de-
tection of waste more efficient 1~. Deacon, then
borough engineer, invented a waste water meter and
combining this -with a certain system of inspection
created ~nat has ever since been known as the "Deacon
System of Detection."
The following useful informa-
tion was obtained mainly from his report Nov. 11,
1873 entitled "Report of the BorOUgh Water Engineer
as to Prevention
of Waste of Water, Restoration
of
Consta~t Service, and Water Waste Meters."
For experimental purposes fourteen districts
were put under investigation.
In each district, first
a fair average of the consumption under the intermittent system and under the constant service system
was obtained by placing a meter, to be described, later,
on the main pipe and taking readings at 6 A. M. and
6 P. M. and thrOUghout the night.
After obtaining
a general idea of the district consumption,
house to
house inspection began by Water Waste Inspectors.
7.
Day inspectors ascertained the number of inhabitants
and inspected the plumbing.
With the waste confined
to no narrower limits than a district the work of the
inspectors as far as detecting leaks was concerned was
uneconomical and night inspection was introduced.
First, all evidences of leaks in the street pipes were
followed up, all stopcocks eXisting within the houses
were placed outside on the service pipe connecting
with the street pipe.
The night inspectors at twelve
o'clock on a fine night sound each stopcock, partly
closing it, in order to contract the passage and increase the noise.
If the inmates have retired, and
a flow of water is heard, the stopcock is closed, and
its number and the time are accurately recorded.
At this sams instant the district meter registers
the reduction in the flow of water, and the time at
Which it takes place.
Should running water from taps
be heard the inhabitants of the house may be awakened,
the house entered, and the exact cause of the flow
located, or early the following'morning
while one in-
spector is within the house another opens the stopcock
outside and the source of waste is found.
Should the
waste be concealed sounding with the teeth at the taps
and other fittings will generally discover a leak in
the bUl~led pipes.
The inspector takes measures to see
8.
that the waste is remedied in the best possible manner.
The ni&1t sounding can be done by very few men, the
following day inspection and repair may take more men
but is still economical.
The repair is charged toJor
made by/the owner of the house or establishment in
which the waste occurs.
A test for the condition of
pipes is conducted as follows:Some portion of the district is isolated
from the remainder by a valve, and all water flowing
into it is passed through the district meter.
the fittings in this portion are sealed.
All
The stop-
cocks are then closed one by one, the time being noted,
waste in the pipes of any premises is thus discovered
and measured.
A summary of the defects in the.four-
teen districts under investigation is as fo1Iows:-
es issued for defects.
Simple repair~ by. I~~ectors •.
. BaliWater
Pipes. To- Cocks. Ball- Water
Pipes.
cocks. Closets,
tal.
cocks. q1osets,
etc.
5
535
etc.
1,232 2,665
58
253
Total
55
28
Grand Total
394
3,076
--~~.~.~~~-~~~~~~----~---~~--~-~--~----~-~---~~-----~-~-~--~C\",a.
Tests for leaks in public pipes~conducted
thus: By closing stopcocks entirely any flow through
the main or branches on which the closed stopcocks are
situated must be due to lew,age.
Sounding may often
locate the leak.
Sewer examinations on dry nights
may lead to discoveries of large isolated leaks.
above laa
The
description of the Deacon System;the re-
sults obtained will now be given and also some idea
of the amount of repair undertwten.
At an early stage of the i~vestigation
695 defects were found in the streets or street connections against 812 defects inside houses.
The
street defects were due to old pipe, the house defects
mainly to single valves in cisterns and taps for flushing closets.
Eighty thousand. five hundred eighty-one
feet of new lead pipe were laid.
laid deeper and made heavier.
pipe repairs were made.
to make the system tight.
The new pipe was
A great many stand-
Everything possible was done
The consumption in a cer-
tain boarding-house was cut from 70 gallons per head
per day to 12 gallons.
places was checked.
Waste in offices and public
Under the intermittent system 20
gallons per capita per day were us.ed, under the constant supply system 34 gallons, but under the latter
system plus the detection system the "per capita" consumption was only 13 gallons.
sBvedo
Thus nearly one-l1alf was
The principal sources of waste were found to be
lew{ages in main pipes and leakage in private pipes and
fittings, the latter the greatest of the two.
Too light
10.
pipe for ordinary pressure, cistern and taps of faulty
construction, and non regulating water closet apparatus
were found everywhere.
The richer class of people
found to use more water than the poorer class.
was
Having
seen mlat the system accomplished the water waste meter
deserves some attention.
Mr. Deacon 1n the above report presented
seven properties of his mete~ some of which ares(1)
Meter cost, qne-fifth the price of piston
meters.
(2)
It shows by line on diagram kind of waste:
constant leakage or sudden draUght due to
tap opened and left runn1ng.
(3)
The diagrams may be run for one week and will
indicate for a district of 1000 - 2000 persons the closing and opening of every separate tap.
(4)
It is equally sensitive for high and low
velocities.
To further understand the meter, following is an account taken from Reports of Boston Water Works 1877 J.882.
The meter indicates the rate of flow at any
given time and whether the discharge 1s due to steadily
flowing waste or intermittent and ordinary use.
cons 1st s,
a8,;,,-seen'~-f<rom- ..accompan.¥,.ing-,d.1agPam,
It
of a hollow
J.1.
cone having its s~B1l end upward, and containing a
disk of composition, of same diameter as the small end
of the cone.
A
vertical spindle, attached to the up-
per surface of this disk, is suspended by a Germansilver
wir'e, which passes,
VI8..telJ-tig1.!.t,
through a
small hole in the top of the chamber over a pulley,
The weight is so adjusted
and supports a weight.
as to retain the disk at the top of the cone when the
Water drawn through the meter
water 1s at rest.
presses the disk downward toward the bottom of the
cone and its position therefore depends upon the amount
of water passing through the meter.
By means
of a
pencil attached to the wire the motions of the disk
are recorded on a drum Which revolves by clockwork
A
once in twentY-four hours.
prQseYl-feCI.
(0.+\2'(
l~
Tbe-acoompanylng. dia-
P(\r\ \.l
gramAshows how the meter records the rate of flow and
how the different sources of consumption
tected from it.
can be de-
Further on will be given a report
of Mr. Brackett for the City of Boston, U. S. on
Deacon Mater Experiments.
Mr •. George F. Deacon
in 1873 had substituted
constant service in fourteen districts of Liverpool
and reduced the consumption
per day from 19.59.per
to 13.32 gallons per capita
capita.
He outlined his policy
in 1873 as followS1 to divide Liverpool into 300 waste
water districts and put one waste water meter on each
district, to leave diagrams on for a week at a time,
to remove fifty diagrams each day and have them brought
to the office, to look these diagrams over carefully
and take steps to follow up immediately any indications
of waste.
Returning to recent years it appears that
this policy has been pursued.
The city was divided
in two hundred and twelve districts, the water to each
district passing through a Deacon meter placed in a
convenient place under the sideWalk.
Forty to fifty
diagrams are brOUght into the office each morning and
inspected; the night of the same day investigations
are made in the districts showing unreasonable
sumption.
con-
The following day notices are given to
the owners of places wasting water by inspectors, after
they have received information from the night inspectors,
detailing the cause ~f the waste discovered by them
in the place indicated by the night inspectors.
Later on two re3xaminers are sent into the district to
see if the necessary repairs have been properly made.
In the year 1901 the per capita consumption was 31
gallons.
Eighteen of this included domestic, hotel,
pUblic house, warehouse, office, and shop consumptio~
and all waste due to leaks in public and private pipes
in the city.
intermittent.
All the supply was constant, none of it
,In 1902, 37428 defects
were discovered
as foJ.~ows: 556 in city pipes, 5662 in private pipes,
16334 in draw off cocks, screw down cocks, plug cocks,
and stand, pipes, the balance of defects were in valves,
ball-cocks
To discover these de-
and other plumbing.
facts 200,000 inspect10nswere
made.
This gives a good
idea of What European plumbing and waste inspection
means., As recent as the year 1903 the Deacon System
was still working efficiently.
mains are all T connections
The connections
to
or screwed connections
depending on the size of service pipe.
on the water system is done by the city.
~l
the work
Fixtures
must pass inspection and test of city engineer before
installation.
Though there are about 2000 private
service. meters attached, their use is not advised by
the city.
Liverpool
consumption
accomplished
metering
since 1873 has kept the per capita
down to a remarkably
it without going;to
all private
services.
of detection and prevention
have worked these wonders
low figure and has
the enormous expense of
A wall devised system
and an honest inspection
for Liverpool.
(N.B. The gallons above are British Imperial gallonso
To get U. S. gallons multiply by 6/5)
14.
GLASGOW.
The city of Glasgow, so often referred to as
a model of efficient municipal government, supplies
water to a population Of 1,051,000, which has a daily
consumption of 72 million U. S. gallons, or 65 U. S.
gallons per cap1 ta.
lons are used
1'01"
Of this 41 U. S. (34 Imp.) gal-
domestic purposes and 24 U. S.(20
Imp.) gallons for trade requirements.
The water used
for trade purposes 1s generally metered, so that after
deducting the 24 gallons per capita metered from the
total per capita, 65 gallons, the remainder) 41 gallon~
represents not only the water used for domestic purposes but also the amount wasted.
Some of the domestic
services are metered but only at the request of the
consumer' and such metering is not encouraged.
The
total number of meters in use, including those on
trade services, is about 4000 and, strange as it may
seem to Americans, the meters are never tampered with,
the city seal placed on each being sufficient to deter
the water takers from meddling with them.
water is unrestricted
The use of
at all hours and at all times
and question of waste is entirely solved by (1)
Good material, good pl~~bing and tested flt-
tings~ both inside and outside the houses.
(Ia) All taps in the street mains not over 1ft in
dia~eter are screweq in instead of being driven in to
15.
avoid the possibility
and wasting water.
of splitting main or becoming loose
When a tap larger than 1" diameter
is required the main 1s cut and a T is put in.
(2)
Proper and honest inspection.
(3)
By district metering
to detect leaks in the
mains.
(3a) In 1885 experiments with district meters
reduced an average oonsumption of 59.2 Imperial gallons (71 U. S. gallons) per day to 26.6 Imperial gallons (31.9 U. S. gallons) per day and the night rates
from 45.0 Imperial gallons (54 U. S. gallons) to
10.8 Imperial gallons' (13 U. S. gallons).
M.A.NCHEST~!._
There are 1,'100,000 dependent on the Manchaster Corporation
for a supply of water.
The per
.
,
capita rate is 29 Imperial gall.ons (about 35 U.
s.
gallons) per day of which 16 Imperial gallons (about
19 U. S. gallons) is used for domestic purposes and 13
Imperial gallons (about 16 U. S. gallons)
uses.
fOl"
trade
A system for detecting leaks in the street
mains was found unnecessary
as the so11 is a heavy
clay and leaks in the mains soon show at the surface of
the street.
All plumbing fixtures are tested and
stamped before use and regularly
stallation in the houses.
inspected after in-
stopcocks are put on al~
16.
supply pipes outside the houses so the supply can
readily be shut off without tearing up street and
pavement and also to give the night inspector the
means of applying a stethescope
to the valve of the
supply pipe of any unoccup1ed house anddeterminlng
if
water. is running through that pipe, i.e. if the house
fixtures are leaking.
As in Glasgow the use of meters 1s not encouraged and only 7000 have been installed.
BIRIfiNGI!!~.:M.
With a total population
supplied of
800,000 the per capita consumption
of Birmingham
is less than 24 Imperial gallons (about 29 E. S. gallons)
pe!l day.
Leakage and wastage is satisfactorily
controlled by house to house inspections
made once
every six months and no system of detecting leaks in
the street mains is in use.
LONDON.
t.
The water works of London are now owned
by the city but are the property
tions, which, under municipal
to a total population
of eight corpora-
supervision
of 6,850,700.
Imperial gallons (roughlY 250,400,000
supply water
In 1900~ 212,048,629
U. S.gallons)
17.
were supplied to a popu1anion of 6,100,000 giving an
average per capita per day of 34! Imperial gallons.
(41.4 U. S. gallons).
The various corporations have
different per capita rates of consumption and in 1903
these varied from 30.6 Imperial gallons (36.7 U. S.
gallons) to 46.35 .Imperia1 gallons (55.7 U. S. gallons).
All the companies give practically 10a;b con-
stant supply and with.;sllgh:texception the daily
per capita rate of consumption increases as the number
of parsons supplied decreases.
The reason for Lon-
don's small per capita consumption as compared with
that of large American cities like New York, Boston,
and Chicago lsnot
eVident, for even granting that
Londoners naturally use less water than Americans,
that bath tUbs, laundry tubs and fixtures are fewer
in private residences in London, and that flush tanks
are much smaller, yet enormous quantities of water
fa.
are used in cleaning the streets of London, whics, if
the results obtained are to be taken as a criterion,
the quantity so used in American cities is relatively
small.
The means employed to detect and prevent
waste are:-
180
(1)
Night inspection of all valves.
(2)
Use of the Deacon Waste Detecting Meter System.
PARIS.
The per capita consu.mption of the City of
Paris is 60 U. S. gallons per day, 20 of which 1s used
for domestic purposes and the rest for public use, etc.
and includes waste.
Leakage in the houses is controlled by the
metering all services and leakage from the mains
is minimized by placing them in the sewers where they
can readily be inspected.
Here, also, large quantities
of water are used in str.eet cleaning.
COLOGNE.
In 1901 the per capita consumption was 33
U. S. gallons per dayo
A relatively small quantity
of water 1s used forprivate.purposes
as the sanitary
system in general use is primitive.
Another cause
for the low per capita rate for tr~s city may be inferred from the following statement made by
Johnson.
1w.
C. O.
"The four days I was in Cologne, eating at
u
different hotels and restalrants, I saw but one person
drimt water."
Meters are extensiyely used and the
city uses a great deal of water on its streets and for
its parks, fountains and other matters.
19.
BERLI~r.
Berlin, in 1903, had an even lower per
capita rate of consumption
than Cologne, 29 U. So
gallons per capita per day being the average rate.
The
explanation of this low rate lies in the fact that Ber1in is underlaid with a water bearing stratu~ of gravel
so that
by digging
down any place in the city for a few
feet, the manufacturers,
brewers, etc'. can obtain an
abundance of water for trade uses for which no payment
to the city need be made.
It is estimated that about
10'U. S. gallons per capita per day are obtained from
this source.
There 1s no system of night inspection
or of detecting leakage in the mains, ,the water officials disposing of the 1atter question by saying
"The mai~s are not supposed to leakt"
20.
Tables 5, 6, and 7 are taken from nWaste of Water
in New York and its Reduction by Meters and Inspection"
by James H. Fuertes, C. E. and give in condensed form
certain statistics in regard to the amount of water used
in the smaller German cities.
However, the amount of
water used and wasted in German and American
hardly be compared/especiallY
cities can
quantitatively.
A German
city covers less area for the same population
American
than an
city and this crowding together of a large num-
ber of people forces many to live in flats or apartments
rather than in separate house's.
This minimizes
the
number or fixtures, the total length of main and service
pipes and renders house to house inspection
easy.
relatively
The comparative rarity of wash stands, laundry
tUbs, and other hOllsehold conveniences,
or rather necess-
ities according to our standards of living, is also an
important'factor
these cities.
in causing a low per capita rate for
But quoting Mr. Fuertes "even where the
demand is small as measured by our standards,
place and 1s sensitive to remedial measures
as great a proportion
as in our American
Table 5 gives statistics
cities Where practically
waste takes
in almost
cities."
for several of the larger
all the services are metered and
where a very low per capita rate obtains.
21.
Table 7 gives statistics for practically unmetered cities of ~bout the same size as those in table 5.
It will be noted that in nearly every case the per capita
consumption is larger than those of table 5 but not
enou.gh so to make it at all c.ertain that metering has
any influence upon the amount of water required.
This
is more conclusively shown by table 6 Where cities of approximatelY the sama Size, one with lOQ% metered services, the other unmetered have practically the same per
capita consQ~ption per day.
From these three tables 1~.
Fuertes concludes "that careful inspections for wastage,
maintained
systematically without relaxation, with the
enforcement of penalties for serious infractions of the
regulations of the water departments,
are nearly as
efficacious as meters in restricting wastage and have the
s~ne resvlt: viz., to prevent waste, but not use.n
Mr. Fuertes also points out that occasional inspections
are necessary even With 10q% of the services metered.
In general in German cities Where extensive metering has been employed the wastage has been reduced by
from 3~
to 6~
While the rate of per capita consumption
has but little variation as compared with its wide range
of fluctuation in unmetered cities.
22.
Detailed study of the accompanying
descr1ptionof
tables and a
the methods of waste prevention employed
in the separate cities is not within the scope of this
thesis but it should be noted that the German municipalities m~~e every effort to account for as much of the
water supplied to their inhabitants as possible and with
~o
end inviaw,
subdivide the total consumption into three
~
.
classes or heads (1) consumers alone; (2) public uses;
(3) plant, so that a glance at the tabulated data for a
number of years is sufficient to decide in what part of
the system waste is probably occurring and where preventitive measures would be most efficacious.
In Ameri-
can cities, on the contrary, confused/,unreliable
data
is co~non, the waste difficult to locate, and the results
of any method of prevention adopted uncertain.
The data
on water waste and its prevention in European cities was
obtained from the following sources.
"Water Supply and Prevention
of Waste in Leading European
Cities", a report to the Merchants' Association
of New
York in 1903 by l~. C. O. Johnson; "Water Waste Prevention" by l~. Henry C. Meyer 1885; "Waste of Water
in New York and its Reduction by Meters and Inspection",
a report to the Merchants' Association
of New York, June
1906, by James H. Fuertes, C. E.; nReport of the Borough
Water Engineer of Luverpoo1 as to the Prevention of Waste
of Water, Restoration of Constant Service and Waste Water
Meters."
23.
TABLE NO.
5~.""
are
German Cities in which all Consumers
Metered.
Per Capita per Day
in Gallons.
City.
Per cent.
Supply
Metered.
ConsunlCOll- Public
Popua.aYear
ers
Plant.
Total.
Uses.
Referr.ed tion. Total.surners
Alone.
Alone 4
to.
90
100
1.9
76
100
1.6
2.4
61
100
10.1
1.1
1.5
10.5
3.0
-14.3
9.5
3.4
1.4
67
99
14.5
9.3
1.5
3.7
74
100
13000
15.1
10.4
0.3
4.4
1897
39500
15.8
9.8
3.3
2.7
Charlot tenburg
1896
350000
16.1
Griez
1899
23000
7.6
6.9
0.7
Q,uedlinburg
1896
22000
8".2
5.•7
0.6
Gotha
1899
316:710 10.3
6.3
Potsdam
1896
55849
12.7
Erfurt.
1896
78167
13.5
Eisenach
1899
33886
Weimar
1897
Rudolstadt
1899
Bamburg
7!7
100
100
47
78
85
Offenbach
1900
50500
17.1
9.1
Mainz
1900
80000
17.2
Berlin:
1896
18.2
Calmar
1900
40000
18.8
Stettih
1896
140000
20.0
18.6
Hannover
1896
246000
21.2
15.7
171918"3
100
100
3.1
4.9
10.3
3.6,
3.3
75
100
14.9
1.6
1.7
82
100
8:.6
1.7
1.2
0.2
76
2.0
3.5
76
8';.5
(1)
....
100
100
24.
Per Capita per Day!
in Gallons.
'City.
Per cent.
Supply
Metered.
Year
PopulaPublic
ConConsumReferned tion. Total.sumers Uses. Plant. Total. ers
to.
Alone.
Alone.
1900
25200
21.2 . 16.1
3.4
1.7
90
100
Heide1b'erg 1899
38000
21.4
14.4
6.4
0.6
66
100
Stralstmd
1896
30105
21.4
13.0
1.6
6.8
60
100
Darmstadt
1900
70000
21.4
18.8
0.5
2.1
88
100
Wiannheim
1900
.120800
22.5
16.7~
2.4
3.4
74
100
Ereslau
1896
370000
23.2
17.4
1.8
4.0
7(8
100
:Magdeburg 1896
224235 : 24.8
20.0
1.1
3.7
86
100
Strassburg 1900
117500
27.2
13.3
11.2
2.7
49
32000
28.8
24.2
2.6
2,0
88
Giessen
Worms
1900
(2)
'lOa
100
25.
-_
...-.....
e 1 t Y
_-_ ....
TABLE NO. e
Year
referred
to.
Population.
per cap.
can. gals.
per day.
%
total % consu.pply SUJners
meter- supply
ed.
:met el~ed.
Frankfort o .:M.
Eisenach
1895
1899
59049
33886
14.3
14.3
43
67
99
Kiel
Darmstadt
1896
1900
86000
70000
21.9
21.4
10
88
100
Danzig
1895
1900
120000
120800
23.7
22.5
44
Mannheim
74
100
Bremen
l~gdeburg
1900
1896
167000
224235
25.7
24.8
28
86
J.OO
Bernberg
Worms
1900
1900
:..
34500
32000
27.5
28.8
8
88
J.OO
_._-...-.
e 1 t
--
Y
TABLE NO. 7
Yeav
Popu- Per capita consumption
%
Supreferred lagallons R~~ day.
Total ConPub- Plant.ply
to.
tiona
metersurners
lic
ad.
alone. uses.
18.2
2.4
1.3
10
K1eJ.
1896
86200
21.9
Bremen
1900
167000
25.7
Bernberg
1900
34500
27.5
23.7
3.3
KarlsrUhe
1899
95000
32.0
28.5
3.5
Dessau
1900
50000
33.0
17
Regensbul~g
1897
47400
34.9
18
Metz
1900
54517
35.7
13.0
6.6
16.1
12
ll'B.rZbur g
1897
71000
56.6
34.5
18.7
3.4
6
Augsburg
1895
81900
63.8
56.0
7.8
L-abeck
1900
73093
82.8
28
0.5
8
30
1
9
26.
PART III.
GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM OF WATER WASTE AUD ITS
PRE\J~NTION IN ~mRICAN
CITIES.
The Problem of Water Waste and its Prevention
has not been studied by the individual Americwl
cities
until it was brought to the attention of their Water
Departments
in one of three ways, i.e.
By an excessively
(1)
high per capita rate of
consumption.
By an increase
(2)
a corresponding
(3)
in the cost of pumpag~ without
increase in population
or manufactures.
. By a shortage in the supply.
The first step toward reducing leakage and wastage in
almost every case, was the establishing
of house to house inspection
of a system
to locate leaks and to
collect data on the cause of waste.
The amount of
lew{age and wastage so found/together
with the data
obtainable
from the waste reduction work of other cities
of the same class/~ormed
the amount of reduction
the basis for an estimate of
of waste,)f possible
}
or desir-
able, of attainment.
The next step was the choosing of a system
of waste prevention
to accomplish
which could reasonably
be expected
the desired amount of waste reduction.
and installing it.
27.
Three general methods are in use.
1.
Inspection.
2.
Inspection and metering of wasteful consumers.
3.
Metering.
In some cities combinations
of the above methods are
in use.
The sources of waste in American
cities
were found to be.
1.
Le~~y mains, services, flush tanks and fix-
tures.
2.
Surreptitious
cOlmections and by-passes
around meters.
3.
Illegitimate use of water by leaving taps
open to prevent pipes freeZing in winter and to obtain cool drinking water in summer.
28.
PART IV.
WATER WASTE AlID
ITS
}TEW YORK
PREVENTION
IN
CITY.
In 1876 the first attempts were made to
check the waste o~ water in New York by the method
of house-to-house
inspection.
This was followed in
1877 by the abrogation of the contract to supply water
for shipping and building purposes and later metering
and throttling the mains were tried as a remedy.
In 1885, the per capita consumption was 75 gallons
per day or nearly three times the rate then prevailing
in the English cities of Liverpool and Manchester.
It was estimated that, even alloWing for the differant standards of living in the two countries, 40 gallons per oapita per day were wasted in New York and of
this, 25 gallons represented the preventable waste.
With this end in view, house-to-house
inspection was
again resorted to in 1887 and 192,277 day inspections
and 9,275 night examinations of house drains were made.
The resUlts of these inspections showed that the greator proportion of the waste was confined to about lq%
of the water t~{ers and that if this waste could be
checked the number of consumers could be increased
4~
without increasing the supply.
By 1903 the total amount ot water supplied
to New York and Brooluyn was in round numbers 400~
millions of gallons per day and waste had reached such
large proportions, variously estimated at 1/3 to 2/3
the ~nount supplied, that unless some method could be
round to reduce it, the city would be forced to still
further increase its supply system.
Again inspection
was decided upon, and was carried out with the aid of
Pitometers.
Tne Pitometer Waste Detecting System, with
the exception of the measuring instrument employed, is
very similar to the Deacon Waste Detecting System.
The city was divided into typical districts, each con-
taining about the same class of consumers, and measurements of the night flows in each district-were made.
The measurements were made by passing all the water
used in one district through a single main to which a
Pitometer was attached.
At the sa~e time a complete
inspection of the district was made for lew{y fixtures and the mains and services ware tested by cutting
down the area supplied, a block at a time, by means of
sidewalk cocks on the services and noting the amount
consmned by the remainder of the district as recorded
by the Pitometer.
The character and statistics per-
taining to the various districts are given on the accompanying blue print.
'"
\\iASTE
INVESTIGATION-l\~ANI~AT1'AN
Typical Distrids
llfdtrctl
alld
15
?H
IX.
'TADLE I~ApPE~IHX.
AND ~1TlIIi BJ{ONX-I903.
S:tmmaky
dA Results
of
Jfeasltrt?lI!(fl!~.
'c, =_:7=t~~C~=:_~~==:c~~=
I .
'I"
,
Td.l!
,
;-;l1ed.ll
Metered Usc'\
III
:rhi; Di,trkt.
-~
i
>-~-,~ .....,.~--; '--
X.4°'j
I,VS
',.03
Ii ..
,.,I
F
I':
4;.
!
Iz8
".Yl
....
.., ...
I
'. '" I
I
37
I
'J";
(().4
,,0;8
5;
94.S
f,3iS
S4
j
f,'HI)
4"i)
,los"
:,15
\
I
1
I
35
I
!
\
j'
I,
i
2,)5
!
1
l)~.5
<)~"
I
i
';'/
.:J4
3CJt
I
H
.
I
I
!
89""
'J.o<J4
I
t}5~-,) :
751
I
,
l
1
i
4,z:H
S'lf
'11
I
I
!
1 91
S7~
I
I
I
~
,
~ ~Illcll fru.;tur¥ and railroad k;,; .,at 0" m,"~"r<,t ba"i~ het\,'.~ell ill~;;':Ctiolls •
..IS t<1 ;II~;;-;:::.t kak.ll7,~ or vther connections
requinng 1llt:(<:C:::.
:l9
91
'fallkal;e
in Vi~ltict.
3l~
Beforejgoing
on to a mora detailed discussion
of the difficulties of checking waste by this method,
_ and the actual results obtained in the case of New
York, adescriptlon
of the Pitometer will be given.
This instrument works on the well known principle of
Pitot's Tube and consists in fact of a pair of Pitot
Tubes which can be inserted in the street main through
an ordinary 1 inch corporation cock.
The pressure
within these tubes is communlctaed to a glass U-tube
and recol~dad photographically
ments.
by appropriate
attach-
The corporation cock for introducing the
tubes can be quickly attached to a water main under
pressure by the ordinary service tapping machine.
The tubes are of brass,
!"
outside diameter,
and 3/161 inside dla~eter with an orifice at the end
in diameter.
i"
One tube of the pair points directly up
stream and the other directly down stream.
The veloc-
ity of the water in the street main, impinging against
the up stream tUbe, tends to increase the pressure in
that .branch of the Pitometer, while it also tends to
decrease
tne pressure in the brancll turned down stream,
and the difference in pressure in the two tUbes, being
proportional
to the square of the velocity, serves to
meas'~e this velocity, the coefficient of the instrumant having been previously determined.
Tests have
shown the actual velocity to be very nearly 80% of the
theoretical
velocity corresponding
to these differences
of head between the tubes.
Since with a small velocity this difference
of head if measured by a water column would be inconveniently
sma11 for precise and rapid observations,
the ingenious
expedient is adopted of connecting
the
two Pltot Tubes by short upward sloping rubber tubes
to the two branches of a glass U-tube partially
with a liquid heavier than water.
filled
Carbon tetra-
chloride of about specific gravity 1.5 is commonly
used and is diluted to::-aspecific gravity of 1.25 by
gasolene or some other hydrocarbon.
the rUbber connecting
The water from
tubes pressing on top of this,
forces the line of demarcation
between the two 'liquids
up or down according to the pressure, and if liqUid
of specific gravity 1.25 is used, 1t multiplies
the
range of motion to four times what it would be if water
and air were used in the glass tubes for measuring
the
pressu.re.
The difficulties
experienced
in ,the Pito-
meter Surveys made at New York were briefly these.
(1)
It was found very hard to entirely isolate
any district
from the remainder
Old connections
of the system.
existed between districts which were
not discovered until after the tests were made.
Valves were old, out of order and lew{y and in some
cases 'ware discharging a good-sized stream into a
neighboring sewar.
In some cases mains running out
of a district could not be closed without lowering
the pressure below the safe pressure in the district.
(2)
surreptitious
connections to the main, and
meters by-passed often made the Pitometer readings
unreliable in measuring waste.
(3)
The general prevalence of large house taw~s
with either leaky ball cocks, no ball cock at all,
or overflows directly connected to the sewers often
made the night rate excessively high while as a matter
of fact the water in may instances instead of being
wasted, was refilling house tanks drawn low by the
day's consumption.
(4)
The almost universal absence of curb stop
cocks lnade it difficult to shut off separate house
services.
(5)
The existence of houses having double ser-
vices affected the results obtained.
In spite of these difficulties the results
obtained by this Pitomater Survey were very satisfact-
ory.
Every effort was made to isolate each dis-
trict as completely as possible and as the pressure
inside the district was commonly less after isolation
than that in the adjoining territory, any flow through
open mains would be into the isolated district and so
make the measu~ementB of consumption
obtained there
too small and also have the effeot of smoothing out
the small variations of the curve of hourly consumption.
The work done and the results obtained are
given in detail on the blue print already referred to
and it 1s not necessary to discuss them further except
to point out tha~ wastage and leakage was found to
exist in every district examined and that the greatest
amount so found was not among the poorer classes of
people.
For comparison with the data obtained at New
York, Tabla 27, nWater Works Statistics of the Large
Cities of the United States for the Year 1902" is given.
From 1903 to 1906 nothing appears to have
been done to check wastage.
In the latter year the
following facts were advanced to show the necessity
of i~~ediate action in checking water waste in the city.
(1) Manhattan and the Bronx were not only using
more water daily than could be safely depended upon
from the Croton and Bronx water sheds, with the present
storage, but were actually using within about 1~
of
37.
account
for every
surners.
In the smaller
fort 1s made
never
drop of water
to reduce
possible
of the water
large distribution
from the mains
where
every
account
for more
than
aq%
(See Table 12, page 97
water) and in a
supplied
The remaining
and services
ASsuming
ef-
it is
like that o~ New York,
system
for.
to the con-
to a minimum
the mains.
tieD of measurement.
2~
prob-
could
represents
and the uncertain-
that
79% of the water
could. be account ed for, Mr. Fuel'tea makes
supplied
the following
sumption
average
the wastage
than 75% of the amount
ever be accounted
leakage
systems
of unaccounted-for
for percentages
ably not more
supply
to accurately
entering
furnished
estimate
should
as to What
have been
of 284,000,000
the per capita
In that year an
in 1903.
gallons
con-
per day was supplied
to Manr..attan and the Bronx.
25% of this could not be accounted
under the above assumption,
or
From tests 15% would
ture lew{age, or
Amount for public
per capi ta
for
be lost by fix-
uses
Total
per day, is en estimate
n
11,000,000
n
82,000,000
217,000,000
n
284,000,000
"
@ 37
Total
67,000,000
gals.
43,900,000
at 5 gals.
Amou~t for trade purposes
gallons per capita
Remainder,
71,000,000
supplied
gallons
or 30.2 gallons
of the domestic
"
per capita
consumption
if
3B.
all leakage and unnecessary wastage could be stopped.
The amounts used for trade purposes were the results
obtained from tests and may be assumed approximately
correct.
As the percentage of unaccounted-for
from 1894 to 1904 varied from 3~
supplied, Whereas from the
to 4~
water
of the amount
above estimate it should
not be much over 25%, the obvious conclusion was that
there was considerable domestic wastage Which could
be effectively controlled.
There was leakage in the
mains, of course, but it has been found that such
lew{s are sme.ll in size, large in numbers, hard to 10cute, and that it takes years of work to accomplish
any appreciable reduction in the wastage by stopping
leal{s in the mains alone.
Three methods were e.d"lanc
ad
~or controlling this domestic leakage and wastage. (1)
house-to-house inspaction; (2) inspection in conjunction
With partial metering; (3) universal metering.
Mr.
~~ertes, in his report, recommends
universe1 metering as the best remedy, quoting the
experiences of metered cities, and the advantages of
metering, to support this opinion.
These arguments
will not he given here as so far as we know no action
has been taken on bis report to date.
Several let-
tors have been sent to New York asking for data on
the present aspects of waste prevention
in the city
but no answers have been received.
The sou~ceB of our data on Waste and its
Prevention in New York, were the following books and
rcports:Water Waste in Connection with the Water Supply
or
New York and Brooklyn, by John A. Cole C.E.
Appendix IX, Water Waste Investigations
in
New York City, 1903, by Wm. H. Burr, Rudolph Hering,
and Jor~ R. Freeman.
Water Waste Prevention, Henry C. Meyer, 1885.
Repollt of Commission of Public Works for 1887.
Waste of Water in New York and its Reduction by Meters
and Inspection, 1906, by James H. Fuertes, C. E.
PART V.
WATER WASTE AND PREVE}ITION IN BOSTON, Y~SS.
Boston, previous to 1881, recognizing that enormous quantities of water were daily being wasted began
"inspection".
Inspection of the houses brought to light
a great many causes of waste but inspection was, as in
Liverpool, not an economical means of prevention.
After
legislation authorizing more efficient steps for prevention, Boston in 1881 purchased three Deacon Meters, Installed them and instituted the Deacon System of Detcct1on, already fUlly described under Liverpool, in the
Charlestown District.
First, the meters were tested for
accuracy and sensitiveness with the result that they were
found to be very sensitive and sufficiently accurate to
record a flow of one hundred gallons per hour (the Bame
meter wOlud register 12,000 gallons per hour or 288,000
gallons per day).
The same method that was pursued in
Liverpool was followed out in Charlestown.
The sections
were so selected as to incl~de portions of the district
devoted exclusively to business purposes and to combine
.
in senarate section.s different classes of dwellings •
Thus sections 3, 4, 5, 9, and 10 embrace the wealthier
class of population, While sections 1, 2, 7, 8, and 12
were peopled almost entirely by mechanics and laborers.
41.
The first meter was set May 4, 1881, the second and
.third set on the 14th and 27th respectively.
Inspection
began May loth and lasted until November 18th.
On Novem-
ber 25th one mete~ was run to record the flow caused by
faucets left running to prevent freezing of fixtures.
Number
'Estimated Number
PopuJ.aof p erGons per
Section. tion.
stopof
co c:{.
Gallons
Before
-.P~.E- he~..9--'pe.;,_.~aR.
After 2 or 3
Per-
centage
inspecinspections. of retion
duction.
Tot/al.
IfI-i:;ht ToteJ.. Night On oii-"-"-
rate
rate
To- Night
per
per
tel.Rate.
24 hrs.
24
---------_._-----------...;.-
hI'S.
].
2,810
53.5
39.1
26.4
10.6
50.7 72.9
34.1
13.7
34.4 64.9
47.8
22.3 30.~ 47.2
3,675
9.1
52.
39.
2
2,170
8.1
49.9
33.1
3
2,030
4
1,880
5
1,790
6
1,875
7
2,54{)
8
2,400
9
2,150
1. & 1A
71.8
6.8
10
60.
44.6
55.2
31.9
of;.
40.8
52,3
11
2,800
12
2,300
--_._'"_
_._.~
_-Averages
..
..•..
-
37.9 18.5 ~l.l 54.7
42.
This table shows the results accomplished:-
the per capita
consumption during the day was reduced from 58.5 to 37.7
gallon~ - n saving of 20.8 gallons or 35.~;
the per
capita consumption per twenty-four hours, night rate was
reduced from 37.5 to 15.8 gallons - caving 5~;
and the
total saving for the entire district amounted to 450,000
gallons per 24 hours which represented a saving of
$32,850 per year.
Water supplied to the whole Mystic system, which
included the Charlestown District, was about ten gallons
per head per day more than that delivered to the Charlestown District.
This amount was estimated to be due to
drafts for manufacturing
fountains,
and trade purposes, dr1~~lng
etc.
The resu~ts show that the wealthier class of the
population used 8.7 gallons per day per person more than
the poorer class.
The sources of waste were found to be:-
(1) Defective services and fittings on the
premises of the water takers.
(2)
Defective mains and services on the premises
of the city.
(3)
Wilful waste.
The following table enumerates the sources
of waste discovered.
43.
V1
-';
~M"':
_.-.-
_~..-ot
~
1 & 1A
_
;,;
...,_
_
42
47
5
1
2
16
20
2
J.
3
12
14
2
5
4
5
17
3
6
5
J.O
35
].
5
6
8
32
2
2
1
7
8
38
6
2
2
8
30
36 11
1
4
9
J.2
19
7
2
10
9
20
1
4
11
13
12
2
1
4
J
1
1
2
_ ..
e-t ..
17
].
5
].
1
_
-
.1
_
__
...
125
1
48
8
43
5
37
15
66
13
1
12
-
6
2
2
_
2
68
6
8
71
2
13
99
3
9
53
J.
4
7J9
2
5
2
24
120
2 -~24~.~1°-2,.-4~-.--:"4----O794
TOTALS
From this table most of the defects it appears fall
under divisions (1) and (3); they number about seven
hundred and fifty one and caused a waste of about 4000
gallons per hour.
The rest of the defects fall under
division (2) and number 43 and wasted about 300 gallons
per hour.
This investigation
therefore did not meet expect-
a.tions since it did not show a great street lea]{age.
44.
The cold weather inspections gave results as shown below:
Ga11<?.p...s_.'p_~r_..Head per
Population of section 2,810
___
-..:S;;:;..~ction
I.
Total
Before inspection May 1881
53.5
39.1
After three inspections,
December 1881
26.4
10.6
Dec. 29, 1881
27.6
Jan. 4, 1882
61.5
Jan. 22, 1882
35.8
20.5
Jan. 23, 1882
58.
61.5
Jan. 24, 1882
82.
Jan. 25, 1882
about 100.
Day:.
Night Rate.
88.9
On January 25th the daily waste was 70 gallons
and the night rate 80 gallons per head;more than 2/3 of
whole consumption was wasted that the services might be
kept from freezing.
The section was one where the class
of waste would naturally have been large; the houses
were without furnace heat, the pipes so arranged that
they could not be drained, and the tenants, realizing
that the water might be shut off by the frost, took the
only ~ethod left them to retain their supply -- wasted
the water.
It was found on comparing diagrams for Decem-
ber, 1881 and January, 1882 that for the 22nd the rate
from nocn until 8 P. M. was about the same.
But from
8 to 10 P. M. on the December one a decrease of 1000
46.
gallons per hour took place While the January one showed
an increase of 2,500 per hour.
This was explained be-
cause the weather turned cold on January 22nd and the
consumers toward ten o'clock, on going to bed, turned
on the faucets to prevent freezing, while in December it
continued warm.
The December diagram for January 23rd
Day showed an increase of 4300 gallons per hour while
the January one showed only 1700 gallons increase thus
proving that a great proportion of the waste occurred
in the night.
This inspection cost $1,323.35,
$1,511.08
the meters
and the water saved amounted to 450,000 gallons
per day.
Relative to the diagr~
accompanying these facts
may be said that it shows the condition in July 1881,
two months after the Deacon System was installed, and
the condition in November When the inspection was discontinued, except that to discover freezing.
The drop
in the number of gallons per day 1s qUite apparent.
In-
spection continued until 1895; the curve for 1893 is
shown; still down Where it should be.
Then the system
was more or less discontinued and in 1903 as seen the
consumpt1pn had again reached qUite a high figure. This
alone proves that inspection must be kept up and it must
be efficient.
47.
Believing that the per capita consumption of Boston could be reduced from 95 to 60 gallons per capita
by the checking of waste, the Water Board further extended the use of the Deacon System of Waste Detection duri~i
the year 1884.
The result can be seen by a brief con-
Gideration of the accompanying
table showing the monthly
,
per capita rate of consumption for Sudbury, Cochituate,
and Mystic Water for the first 8 months of the years
1882, 1883 and 1884.
The average reduction was 2~
the Cochituate consumption and l~
tion.
in
in the Mystic consump-
This represents a total daily reduction of 9,586,538
gallons or as the actual cost of water to the city 1s
$1.25. per lOOO gallons, a total saving of $1200 per day
to the city.
48.
-EUDBURY AND COCHITUATE
WORKS.
MO:N:TB..!
1882
1883
1884
January
92.9
97.8
88.4
102.2
92.0
67.5
March
94.1
95.8
65.0
April
88.6
85.8
58.8
}.~ay
82.3
89.8
64.6
June
94.8
93.5
71.2
July
88.5
102.4
68.9
August
97.3
103.2
67.7
January
97.3
92.2
February
89.6
72.9
March
89.8
72.7
April
71.5
60.1
May
73.1
66.4
Ju.ne
80.0
71.5
July
84.5
72.1
Augv.st
83.9
69.5
February
Gallons
pel')
capita
P01'
MYSTIC WOHKS
dc.:t- •
Compal 1ng the rates of consumption of 1882, and 1884,
1
the following facts should be noted.
Average consumption
in gallons per capita per day
with inspection in 1882------------------- 89
The same in 1883 without inspection 92 1/2
The same in 1884. Deacon System and
inspec tion
--
69
In other words, by the use of the Deacon System with 1n-
spectlon, the per capita rate of consumption
in 1884 was
20 gallons less than in 1882, when inspection alone was
relied upon to check waste, and 23 1/2 gallons less than
in 1883 When the inspection system was either entirely
discontinued
or in the hands of politicians.
The dimin-
ished consumption in 1884 greatly reduced the cost of
pumping, the saving in coal at the Highland pumping stat1onalone
for the first 8 months being 3~
of the cost
in the corresponding period of 1883.
The per capita consumption of Boston at the end
of 1884 was still high, 69 gallons per capita per day,
and the attention of the Board was called to Providence,
a city with the same industries and class of people as
Boston but which had a very low per capita consumption,
36 gallons per day.
It was also pointed out that Provi-
denc~ lnetered 5Q% of its consumers while Boston with its
10q% greater per capita consumption metered only l~.
This low per capita consumption ,in Providence
seemed to
be due to metering and lead the Boston Water Board to
formU1ate the following policy in its report for 1884.
"FIRST:- To put recording meters on all manufactur1es,
b~ewer1eB, stores, business
establishments,
hotels, tene-
ment houses, and all other places where a large quantity
of water is used or Where waste prevails.
"SECONDs- To establish Deacon Waste Detection in
the residential portions of the territory supplied with
water, making specific districts and doing the Vlork in
conjunction
w~th house to house inspection.
DTHIRD:- To begin the putting in of side-walk
stop cocks at once, adopting the Church Stop Cock as the
best complement to the Deacon, if further trials continue
to prove its excellence."
This policy was put into effect and an inspection
bureau was maintained
for 10 years, but the inspections
decreased in diligence largely due to changes in adm1nistrnt.1on and to that increase of .ngraft" and corrupt
practices
in municipal government which under the present
administration
of Mayor Hibbard have been so completely
exposed and in part remedied.
From 1895 to 1904 little attempt was made to reduce waste and the daily per capita consumption
considerably
thu~. ill~Btrating
increased
the soundness of the
opinion expressed by the Water Board of 1884 nthat continuous, systematic inspection
the prevention
is an essential element in
of wanton waste now so prevalent
in all
large cOI~lun1ties.n
In 1904 the Metropolitan
report on the Measurement,
supp~1ed to the Metropolitan
and Sewage Board made a
Consumption
and Waste of Water
Water District and the follow-
ing 1s a digest of the data contained in this report.
51.
Water supplied to the Metropolitan
water district
1s used for three purposes: (1) Domest~_c;,;
(2) Manufacturing, Mec4~~c~,
Ce~efv~
and Trade; (3) Public.
study shows that 60 gallons per inhabitant
per day is sufficient for all necessary and legitimate
uses and, since the per capita consumption of Boston was
119 gallons, it seemed that 1/2 the supply was lost by
leakage or improper uses.
There are two causes of loss or unnecessary use.
(1) Leaks from broken mains and service pipes and defective joints which being underground remain undiscovered
for a length of time dependent on the character of sub(2) And larger loss occuring'on premises due
stratum.
to leakages from defective plumbing and improper fixtures
allowed to exist.
Continuous streams are often run in
winter to prevent pipes from freezing and in summer to
supply cool water to drink.
There are two remedies for thisz (1) metering;
(2) measuring supply and fixing water rates accordingly.
----~~~~~-~----~---~-~-~---~------~~-~----------~---~----
CITIES
AHD TOmrS
WHERE METERING HAS BEEN
REMEDY FOR WASTE.
ADOPTED AS A
BEUfONT
all services metered. per capita 47 gallons.
MILTON
n
It
n
n
n
44
n
WATER'rO\\'U
89.5%
n
n
n
n
49
n
l.iALDEN
63.4%
n
It
n
n
47
n
52.
The remainder of the cities and towns of the distr1ct have an average per capita of 116 gallons.
There are 18 cities and towns supplied by the
Metropolitan Water Works, with an aggregate population
of 897,000 and covering an area of 142.7 square miles.
The water supplied to this area is measured by 49 Ventt~i
meters each of which consists of two truncated cones of
cast iron with a throat diameter 1/4 to 1/2 that at
the larger ends.
Small pipes are connected at the throat
and upstream end which register differences of pressure.
As the difference of pressure in these pipes 1s directly
proportional
to the amount of water flOWing through the
meter, the quantity passing 1s indicated by the height of
a column of mercury which is raised or lowered by differonce of pressure in the pipes above mentioned.
By suit-
able means the instrument can be made to register flow
o.l'\d
through 1t automatically bttt so far as
~
'119
larow-1 t has
been used for waste reduction work like the Deacon
Me'ter though from tests on pumpage it has an accuracy of
abo'U t
Z'/o.
Sa.
(J,.
Measurements
oil' Q
51 ,.0 m
of the consumption of the district
from the Venturi records and as computed by the displacement of the pump plungers, principally by the latter
method are 2 l/~
higher than those obtained from the
records of the various cities and towns of the district.
-------------.,;;.......--------------------------------~---:--------....,
r.
Oicr(f am #0. .9
INCH VENTURI
METROPOLITAN
METER.
WATER
18 INCH
THROAT.
AND SEWERAGE
'..;8
BOARD.
:
5fa 5(Bosfon) Boy/slon 51({rid Hsher Ave, Srr-'oki/tle
:~oooooooS.H.5'
BUILDERS
IRON
INCH' VENTURI
METROPOLITAN
40
coo
METER.
WATER
18 INCH
BUILDERS'IRON
35000
FOUNDRY
COO
PROVIDENCE. R. I
PROVIDENCE.
30000000
BOARD
000
FOUNDRY
" 35000000
THROAT.
AND SEWERAGE
R. I •
30 l'OO 000
I
2S 000 000 GALLONS
I:
PER OA'(
(1/
'"
.
jvU'Vee, Break tJflll.5
(L(lCa/) \
25000 ({ao GAllONS
PER
DA'(
I
I
II I .I
II
I
I
II II
I
!
I
. 1 1'j
,l2A.M1
3
2
20
4
iNCH
5
VENTURI
.. 4500000
".000
N L S.•SIt?
24
11
12rM.1
WATER
AND
2
INCH THF.OAT.
SEWERACE
20 INCH
BOA
9
VENTURI
METER.
WATER
AND
e
6~
INCH
I
,. I
10
11
THR-QAT
SEWERAGE
BOARD,
..;.:.!l=oc~o=00.c;..!)
_
BUILDERS IRON FOUNDRY
4 COO 000
PROVIDEN(
PROVIDENCE,
• R. "
Po. I
:3 500 000
GAllONS
Sept 10. Break in
Local 5vsfet!!
.
PER OAV
~3:..::0:..::00:..::0:..::00:....:G::::..:A:.::;LL::.;:O:.:.:.NS;::;...:....:PE::;.;R_:0:.;.::..~y _--.;
2500000
'2000000
2CCOC)<'OI
t'
I
I
I
I
1~00l00) I I fli , I
•
111111
llilitl 1l1J11I1I!llilllll
3
4
~-------
'50ltJ~-+l-1 -+--! III I! I!
I I III I11!~~I, IHh'~I~~I~I~I!~.~1
.J ! I
I
! II i I T~l'!~
!~~~~~~~~~
II
I
I I :
I i
i
I
! IJ
d
I I i
I i 1II1" i \I! I Idlll!!! II iI.flll 1!11 I. II I i III i' ! I I I I i
8
i
ooc
2
7
6
METROPOLITAN
2 ~oocoo
1 000
345
BUILDERS IRON FaUN DR.Y
1S00<00
r "
6h
10
I !i I 111
4500000
coo
3000000
METER
9
.
:) 500000
,
8
no.
(jrledfo.I11_/f,_I.J-.CI_11_5_f_a_fld_, _(i_o~v_/e_rr;_(o_;j_3_A_v._e
METROPOLITAN
') coo oCt)
7
6
IIII
I
5
6
7
I
/I
I:
I
Iii!.!
a
./1
9
10
I
,
I
I
I'i'llf,'
i 11
_
J
I I
11
i
i
I
12P.M.l
2
3
4
5
6
7
j
I
I
9
10
<1
I Ii
I
II ! II
11
12
54.
The average per capita of the cities and towns of the
District 1s given in the accompanying tabla.
It will be
noted .that the rate of per capita consumption in the
different towns and cities varies widely which is explained to some extent by the different class of waterE
takers in each.~xcept in the 5 larger cities, Where manufactur1ng and trade use is co~siderable, it is safe to
assl1me, accord1n~ to 1~. Brackett, that where the
capitan consumption
excess
1s wasted.
ttper
is more than 60 gallons per" day, the
The leakage and wastage in the system
is estimated to be not less than 50,000 gallons per day.
AVERAGE PER CAPITA CONSm.~TION OF METROPOLITAN
OF BOSTON.
DISTRICT
~----------~-~~----------------------------~---~-~-------~-~~~~._~
City, or Town.
JUly.August.
September. October. November.
-------~~---~-------------------
Boston
....
-.----------
DecembEr
~-------------~-~~~-
128
125
128
128
128
141
So~el~\.r111e
88
79
83
79
77
85
Melden
51
48
51
47
43
44
Chelsea
93
89
88
88
89
115
Evel"ett
77
77
80
78
82
92
Q,uinc~-
99
89
88
84
83
91
Medford
81
75
84
78
75
78
Mslpose
105
100
103
10J.
95
93
ReVt.)l~e
67
66
62
53
52
62
Wo.terto'lin
53
50
51
48
45
44
Arlington
82
65
51
56
54
57
Newton
46
45
49
43
44
36
Wlnt:r~op
100
102
93
80
75
84
Stoneham
rl6
79
72
69
70
74
Swam.pscott
94
94
83
74
67
65
Belmont
43
47
52
50
46
44
Lexington
74
78
88
65
50
52
62
58
III
37
109
31
J.09
Nahant
AVERAGE
83
112
lOa--
39
120
5G.
For comparison with the foregoing table of per capita
consmnptlons in the Metropo~ltan cities and towns, the
following table of per capita consumptions in American
cities where all or a large percentage of the water used
is metered, is introduced.
~nis shows that undoubtedly
the Metropolitan District does waste water but affords
no sure indication to what extent or just where waste
may be assumed to exist.
The domestic per capita con-
sumption of the District as shown in the case of the
four which are practically all metered, given in table A,
is not excessive but that it is so low may be due entirei
ly to the fact that they are metered and so it is not a
criterion of the domestic consumption of the district as
a whole.
In considering the question of domestic consumption
it is interesting to observe that from data collected
in Boston the greatest use or waste of water does not
obtain in the cheapest class of houses.
On the contrary
just the opposite is true, jUdging by results obtained
where water is supplied by meter.
the more water used and wasted.
The higher the rental
In the various wards of
Boston the per capita consumption was 24.8 gallons per
day with rentals of $12 to $16 per month and increased
gradually and fairly uniformly to 44.4 gallons with rentals
of $150 and upwards.
I
I'
5'?
TABLE OF PER CAPITA CONSIDI'PTIONIIiTCITIES WHERE ALL OR A
LARGE PERC:FThTTAGE OF THE WATER USED IS :METERED FOR 1902.
- - -- -- - -- •.- - - - - - - ...---
.
.
C I T Y
- - - -- -.-~I:j:CONS -PER -CltPIT1t -PEn-DAY-
--
of s"Ulr~--m>1il:~sManUply meter- tic.
fnctToed.
ures & tal.
Trade.
--- ..... - ... --_ .. _----------_ .. _ .. ~
Estimated
Consumers
------~--~.~~-~-----~--~-~-~-~-Brockton
37800
90.0
1.3.2
6.5
21.8
:::I
107650 .
96.0
1.5~Q~
5.2
22.2
=
35400
86.0
23'~1;
4.6
34.0 =
7690
100.0
25~4';.
~.J.
2605
Woonsocket, R.I. 54474
86.7
J.l~6;~
10.5
22.1
100.0
25.6
o.~
25.7
94.5
J.6.1.
~7.8
36.3
Fall River
Newton
Ware
Wellesley
5147
WOl'cest,er
119330
:::I
~ Includes water for Public Purposes.
-----~_._------------_._-------_.---_.~~
DOMESTIC PER CAPITA CONSD1WTION
WHICH ARE PRACTICALLY
IN THE llETROPOLITAN CITIES
ENTIRELY
METERED.
TABLE_A!_
..............
190~ •
1902.
Belmont
J.7.7
17.1.
Malden
19.6
20.0
Milton
J.6.8
19.3
Watertown
15.3
14.8
OI
T Y
'
-
Diagr.a~' showing
Consumption of ..vVaterinthe'
,
dUring
.
Citvaf Malden
I
each ~our of the
day
I
,Aug,
4, 1903
a~d.JCtn
5, 1904-
..
TemperatUl~e 1s another factor in considering
waste for any pa~tlcular period of time.
domestic
The accompany-
ing blue prints show both the continuous waste and its
relation oliothe amount used to lreep pipes from freezing
on January 5, 1904 in Boston, Chelsea, and Malden.
The rates for August 4, 1903 are shown.
ply is practically
1snot.
fully metered.
The Malden sup-
~le Chelsea supply
The cities are of nearly the same size and
even granting that Chelsea should legitimately
water for trade purposes,
use more
etc. than Malden, it is very
evident that there 1s excessive wastage in Chelsea and
it is logical to assume that metering would check it
relatively
as much as in Malden.
Passing t.o the second sub-division
water in the Metropolitan
of uses of
Water District, viz. Manufactur-
ing rold Trade Uses, the following per capita metered
consumption
was obtained for the cities and towns of the
District.
Boston
24.90
Q,uincy
6.72
SOJ;1ervilla
13.98
Medford
3.87
Chelsea.
12.38
1J!elrose
1.54
Revere
1..88
Watertown
4.27
Malden
Everett
3.93
18.61
Arlington
6.11
:Milton
4.69
Winthrop
0.17
Stoneham
3.34
Belmont
5.06
Lexington
2.52
Nahant
1.58
62.
Unmetered water used for trade purposes was estimated at
5 gallons per capita for Boston
and 2 or 3 gallons per
capita in the other cities and towns of the District.
The following table shows the metered amount so used
in other cities and the per cent. which 1s metered.
---------~~-~-~-~-~-~-~---~-------~--~--------~--~-~-~-~~
PER CAPITA CONSm\~TION OF I,mTERED WATER FOR TRADE PURPOSES
IN VARIOUS CITIES.
C I T Y-----~Metered.
.
--
Gallons per capita
(metered) •
6.03
29.90
6.4~
23.30
Baltimore, Md.
2.17
25.20
Buffalo, N. Y.
2.04
46.00
Pittsburg, Pa.
1.09
~6.40
Detroit, ~ch.
9.24
42.70
Chicago, Ill.
2.18
18.30
Philadelphia
0.59
12.20
Boston
. st.
LOUis, Mo.
The water used for Public Purposes comprises
that used for (1) Public BUildings; (2) Public Fountains; (3) Sprinkling streets; (4) Flushing water pipes
and sewers; (5) For extinguishing fires.
In 1902 the
amount of water used in Boston for the above was:--
63.
For Public BUildings
3.78 gallons
For Public Fountains att.
1.0
For Sprinkling
2.13 gallons per capita per day
For Flushing and Fire Extinguishing
TOTAL,
12345 gallons or
per capita per day
gallons per capita per day
0.20 gallons per capita per day
- .... _---
7.1l gallons per capita per day
For the purpose of an approximate
determination
of the amount of water actually wasted in the district,
the quantity 1eg~timatelY used in the district was esti'mated as follows:
For Domestic Uses
For Manufacturing
25 gallons per capita per day
and trade 23.5 gallons per capita per day
For Public Use
7.0 gallons
TOTAL
per capita per day
55.5 gallons per capita per day
120 gallons per capita per day was consumed by the Metro-
pOlitan District in 1904.
The legitimate per capita
consmnpt1on was estimated as abpve, about 60 gallons.
Mr. Brackett therefore concluded that 1/2 the water supplied was wasted and the accompanying blue print shows
the proportion of waste among the cities and towns of the
District.
Evidence, and to some extent, proof of this
waste was found in the large average night rata per capita,
77 gallons.
The night rata also varied in the different
districts containing the same class of people and it was
"
significant
that the lowest night rates prevailed in the
metered districts.
For illustration
take towns of the
same class with but little ~~ter used for trade purposes,
as ~lton,
Watertown, Belmont, Malden, Medford, Melrose,
Winthrop and the high service districts of Chelsea.
In the first four the average per capita night
rate was 18 gallons.
In the rest the average per capita
night rate was 58.3 gallons.
According
the difference was unquestionably
£actorles
to Mr. Brackett
waste.
With large
and business interests the legitimate
night
rate might well be large but, as has already been pointed
out, such was not the case with the cities mentioned
above.
As has been stated the cause of this waste is due
to lee~ages from mains and service pipes in t~e public
streets and from pipes and fixtures on the premises of
the water takers.
From the data below for the towns of
Milton and Belmont where the supply 1s measured by Venturi meters and all service pipes are also metered it
would appear that the leaks in the street main were a
relatively large proportion
C I T Y
MILTON, April,May,June
n
July,Aug.,Sept.
BELMONT !'!arch 15 to
May 15.
BELMONT May 15 to
Sept. 15
of the whole.
De1ivUnac- Unacared to
Metered. cou.nt- count"l:,he Town.
ad
ad
for.
for %.
Gals.
per day
pel" m:rI:a
of
pipe
unace't
Gallons
325100
328000
216100 108800
J.99100 128900
33.5
39.3
3110
3680
171500
135300
66200
38.6
3710
230500
145000
85500
37.1
4780
for.
In other cities leakage per mile of pipe varies ~rom 3450
gallons to 23000 gallons.
Opportunities
for leakage in
the pipes of a supply system are almost unlimited.
The
main causes may be classified as follows:
(1) Pipes broken due to settlement.
(2)
Those due to deterioration of the material the
pipe is made of.
(3)
Bad joints.
(4)
stop cocks on house services.
(5)
Blow-off valves.
While the Deacon System was in operation in Boston
several broken 4ft and aft pipes were found, in some instances wasting 24000 gallons per day and in one case
100000 gallons per day.
Another instance illustrating
the magnitude of street le~{s occurred in Stoneham.
For the first six months of 1902, 800000 gallons per day
were supplied to the town.
Investigation
in the mains with no surface indication.
showed 4 leal{s
After repair
the consumption fell to 330000 gallons per day, showing
470000 gallons per day had been wasted there alone.
Careless manipUlation
of blow off cocks likewise leads to
waste, in one case in Boston, .amounting to 3,000,000
gallons. per day.
The total lew{age of the mains of the
District, from tests which have been made, seems to be
equivalent to 16.5 to 25 gallons per capita per day.
67.
Waste from the pipes and. fixtures on the premises
of the water taker is'due either to defective plmnbing or
to allowing water to run continuously
either negligently
or wilfully.
from open fixtures
One of the most fruit-
ful Gources of waste is in the ball cocks controlling
the
flow of water into tanks supplying water closets and
other fixtures.
Each fixture waste: in itself is usually
small but thousands of them make almost as large a total
as the waste from the mains.
Another portion of the wasta is that caused JY
~eav1ng faucets running to prevent the pipes from freezing
in the winter and to obtain cool drilll{ingwater in the
summer.
There has always bean a larger use of water in
the Metropolitan
District in winter than in summer.
This use 1s not legitimate
does not occur to
any
and it is significant
that it-
great extent in cities where the
services are metered.
Having decided that water was being wasted in
the Metropolitan
District the question naturally arose
as to Whether it was worth while checking such waste or
not.
Anticipating
this, Mr. Brackett prepared an esti-
mate the essential featl~es of which are given to show
.,.,
the importance of the Waste prevention
of Boston.
problem to the City
68.
Quantity of water needed in the Metropolitan District in the Future.
___
.__
Year.
-
__
'Jio.:.
...
__
.....
__
..........
__
..
..
__
.......
Waste unchecked.
Gals. per cap~'-1n:etered
gals.
per
~
,..
.......
__
........
...
Waste Checked.
Gals. per cap. Metered
Gals. per
day.
day.
1910
134
152
80
90
1915
144
J.81
85
107
1920
154
219
90
128
1925
164
262
95
150
1930
174
310
100
115
Present 'conditions obtaining an addition to the water
supply will be needed by 1913.
-- ,..--
-
_
Source.
This may be obtained from:-
_ .. _--- --- -_ _---_ -Estimated yield.
Million ea110ns per day.
,
\
_
----_
Total yield from
all sources.
Million Bals.
per da"v.
Assabet River
28
201
Upper Ware River
71
272
200
472
Upper Ware and
Swift Rivers
_---~
Estimated cost of new works required within the next 25
years if waste 1s unchecked will be at least $32,000,000.
assmning districts remain constituted as at present.
Data taken from Boston Water Board Reports from
the year 1880 to date.
69.
PART VI.
I
'VATER WASTE MTD ITS PREVENTION IN CHICAGO.
I,
No systematic attempts have been made to
reduce wastage in Chicago except occasional inspections and a few observations on the day and night
flows in the street mains.
The magnitude of the problem can be seen from
the accompanying blue print showing the total yearly
pumpage of the city and also from the statement that
nNo city in the world is or ever has been, supplied
with so great a quantity of water per day as is being
pumped into the distribution system in Chicago to-day."
The following facts were obtained from a re-
port by_John Ericson, City Engineer (1901 - 1902).
(1)
Growth of the city and the addition of in-
dependent water
supplies made it impossible to develop
an ideal system.
(2)
The present water supply is inadequate.
(3)
Contemplated improvements completed in 1919
will onl~T provide for an increase of
400~'OOO
in popula ..
tion.
(4)
More additions and extensions will have to be
provided for in 1907 and 1916.
(6)
Probable lea~age and wastage of water is about
I.
70.
(6)
The metering of about 40% of the taps
would undoubtedly reduce this waste, postpone
future additions and extensions and be a great
saving to the city.
~f--H-H-rr
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II
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72.
PART VII.
WASTE PH}l]"ENTIO~r I~T THE SMALLER AMERICAN
CITIES.
The sources of our data on Waste Prevention
in the, Smaller American Cities were:(1)
'Waste ot Water in New York and its Reduction
by Metering
and Inspectionft•
Report or 1906 by James
H. Fuertes C.E.
(2)
Letters received in reply to lists ot questions
sent to the Water Department
in various cities.
A digest of Mr. Fuertes data and conclusions
will first be given.
ASBURY PARK, NEW JERSEY.
Asbu.ry Park is
a typical. Atlantic Coast sum-
mer rssort Whose bUSy season is from June first to
September 15th.
The water supply was severely taxed
to supply sufficient water during this bUSy season
and in August 1899 there was such a Shortage in the
supply that it became 1mperat~ve
to take some remedial
measures.
decided on the system
The Water Department
of metering every consumer as the best way of reducing
waste, and by July 1, 1901 every service was metered.
This reduced the consumption
2q%.
No restrictions
were placed upon the use of water 'and house-to-house
inspections
were not resorted to, as there has been an
73.
abundance of water since the services were metered.
200,000 gallons per day were used for street sprink-
ling after the services were metered or more than tWice
the amount allowed before.
manufacturing
but about 1~
No water 1s used for
of the total amount
supplied is used for street sprinkling,
filter washing,
etc.
ATLANTA, GA.
To remedy low pressure in 1884, one third
of the consumers were metered, the meters being owned
by the water takers.
and by 1897 practically
In 1885 general metering began
all the consumers
were metered.
The results of this metering were --
(1) A reduction of the consumption from about
200 gallons per capita per day to about 85 gallons
per capita per day.
(2)
Waste successfully
checked for the last 17
years ~~d with metering will probably continue.
(3)
Almost constant rate of consumption
in spite
of the city's rapid growth in population, manufacturing
interests and commercial importance.
(4) Per capita consumption
was not reduced to
the exceedingly low figures obtaining in many Eur~pean
and a few American cities, i.e. metering did not curtail legitimate use.
74.
ATLAI~IC CITY, N. J.
Like Asbury Park, Atlantic City is subjoct to wide variations in population,
the winter
popUlation being about 28,000 and the summer, between
100,000 and 150,000.
Shortage of water during the
summer season lead to the adoption of the meter system
and by 1896 about half the services were metered.
House-to-bouse
inspection was also used and many leaks
were discovered by this means.
The first year the
two systems were in use, the wastage was reduced 5q%
with 7~
of the services metered.
For a number of
years there was no material increase in the consumption
but since 1903 there has been an upwfU~d tendency due to
ftincreased popUlation, greater numbers of fixtures in
use and higher standards of living.ft
CL~lELANDt OHIO.
Domestic service began to be metered in
Cleveland in 1901.
In that year the annual pumpage
was increasing at about the rate of 44% or nearly twice
as fast as the rate at 1ncrease in popUlation.
The
number of metered bUildings, factories, hotels, apart.mont houses and large stores
was increasing at a
someWhat lesser rate and it was deemed expedient to
check the waste by metering domestic consumers.
The
I
;
,
+
. _.:....J..
""-
~-J....!-*"""~~
,M
ij
I
II
results of this policy can be seon from the accompanying
curve
or
in use.
per capita consumption and number of meters
It will be noted that the per capita con-
sumption decreases as the number of meters in use increases.
DETROIT, MICH.
In 1888 the average per capita consumption
of Detroit was 210~ gallons per day.
By l89~ ftby
persistent and careful inspection, enforcement of the
water re~l~ations
and placing meters on wasteful con-
sumers" it had been reduced to 136 gallons per capita
per day with only 5400 meters in use, a reduction
of 35% while the population in the same time had increased 3~.
After ~897 the metered quantity of water
used for manufacturing
and trade purposes
increased
and the metered domestic consumption decreased, the net
resu~t being an increase, until in 1905 the per capita
consumption was as large as in 1899 when the wastage
was only partially checked.
The explanation
advanced
was that the inspection had become lax, and that the
meters had been removed from the services of some of
the wasteful consumers.
th1s~ as the real reason.
1~. Fuertes does not regard
He says "The temptation is
very strong to accept this explanation.
It 1s a fact,
however, that the rate of consumption in Detroit has been
77.
increasing from some legitimate undetermined cause, as
the increase of metered consumption in 1899 over 1898
was greater than the increase in the unmetered consumption, While the capacity of the meters in use in 1899
was practically the same as in l898.ft
However this
may be, there is pretty conclusive evidence to show
that metering reduced the domestic consumption.
In
35 residences the following rates of consumption
were found in gallons per capita.
Paying by the assessment plan
106
Paying by metered amount
45
The estimated value of the water saved during the time
between 1897 and 1905 was five times the cost of maintaining the Meter and Inspection Bureau.
FALL RIVER,
With ~
}/T.ASS.
of the services metered and 6000
consumers, the per capita consumption of Fall River
in 1874 was 84 1/2 gallons per day.
Meters were
gradually added until in 1879, when 5~
of the services
had been metered, the per capita consumption had dropped to 35.6 gallons per day, a reduction of 5~.
With 6~
of the services metered (1882) the per capita
consumption was 45.9 gallons per day and With 7Q%
metered (1887) the per capita was 28.89 gallons per day.
Between 1887 and 1902 the per capita consumption
remained between 30 and 40 gallons per day.
This is
probably due to the close watch which the Water Board
has always kept over consumers to prevent as much waste
and surreptitious use as possible.
The results show
that for the last 28 years the per capita consumption
has been kept below one half the rate prevailing before
the introduction of the meter system.
The lowest per
capita rate was obtained with 7q% of the services
metered and it is thought that the increase since
that time was due to growth of pop~lation, and manufacturing.
Two points well worth noticing in the study
of water waste in Fall River are (1) Meters reduced waste not use;
(2) Even with the most rigid inspection and
practically uniLversal- ..~' metering, 1/6 of the water
pumped is still unaccounted for.
A curve showing the relation between the per
capita consumption and the percentage of metered services is shown under the discussion of meters, Pagell~.
HARRISBURG,
PA.
In 1888 a rigid house-to-house
inspection
to locate leaks was made in Harrisburg and additional
meters were put on large consumers.
Metering of domestic
,.
services was voluntary,
the consumer choosing the kind
of meter and the city only reserving the right to test
any consumer's meter and charge all ~epairs to the
waterte~er.
From 1888 to 1899 the per capita con-
sumption only varied 5 or 6 gallons from 122 gallons.
This large rate is due to the amount used for trade
and m~~ufacturing
purposes which is 5~
supply, public uses' taking only
5
or
Progressive introduction
of the total
4%.
of meters reduced
the domestic per capita consumption from 89 to 55
gallons per day, the curtailment of waste being sufficient to supply the gradually increasing demands of
manufacturing
which had grown from 33 to 65 gallons
per day in the same length of time.
Since 1899 the
amount used for trade purpose has increased as the
city grew.
The main point to be noted is that by
metering
of the domestic services, the domestic
6~
wastage has been cut down by about 30 ga11o~s per
capita per day. .
HARTFORD, CONn.
In 1900 a house-to-hoUBe
inspection system
was inaugurated with a corps of 10 inspectors.
The
results of this inspection indicated that about 1/3
~
of the water supplied was waste~and the univerSal mater-
80.
1ng of' ser',lc as was adopted as a remedy.
The night
rate of per capita consumption as measured by Venturi
meters dl~opped from
87
1899 to 55 gallons'per
gallons per day in February,
day in February, 1902.
In 1897
and 1898 the average per capita was 110 gallons per. day
and in 1904 and 1905 had dropped to 62 gallons per day,
a reduction of 48 gallons per capita per day, by metering.
Tests on the mains gave a leakage of about 40,000
gallons per mlleper
day showing that most of the wast~
ago and leakage was in the service pipe~
LAWRENCE,
MASS.
In 1894 the Water Board of Lawrence recommendcd metering as a means of reducing the water waste occurring in that city.
Their recommendation
was not
acted upon until 1902 When wastage had become so apparent that all services were ordered metered.
reduced the consumption about 2~.
This
The average per
capita consumption in 1903 and 1904 was 42 gallons
per day while that in 1900 and 1902 the average consumption per capita was 53 and 54 gallons per day.
1904 5~
8~
In
of the total purnpage passed through meters,
of the services having meters attached.
In the
same year the average daily amount Bupplied to the city
was less than in 1905 although the popUlation had practically doubled.
II
8l.
mated to be wasted.
A curve showing the relation,
between the per capita consumption
and the percentage
of meters' in use will be found on page 1/8.
per cap1taconsumptlon
there
8.1'39
The low
is explained by the fact that
a large number of inhabitants
per fixture,
1.e. there are a large number of tenement' houses.
LOWELL, lULSS.
In 1899 one~half the services in Lowell were
metered and still only
25%
of the total consumption
was accounted for by meter.
per capita consumption
'In 1900 the highest
of recent years obtained, 83
gallons per day, and of this probably 30 gallons per
day was wasted.
The following year the policy of
metering wastefuJ. consumers was adopt,ed.
Wh1J.e meter-
1ng was optional, waste was not much reduced even with
5~
of the services metered.
When the most wasteful
consumers were forced to put in meters the effect was
G/o
felt at once althOugh only J.O~ of all the consumers
were directly concerned.
The saving thus affected was
. about 35% of the entire sup~ly for the city.
JJ1l is shown the curves of per capita con-
On page
cumpt10n and percentage
to 1906
of services metered from 1886
0
MADISON, WIS.
The installation
of meters began in Madison
in 1887-8. By 1897, 9Q% of the services were metered
and the amount per consumer was less than one half that
used in 1887-8 When 116 gallons per consumer per day
From 1897 to 1904, when 9~
were used.
of the ser-
vices were metered this rate of consumption
was reduced
to 14 to 21 gallons per metered consumer per day,' the
total pet' capita consumption
gallons per day.
being from 44 to 71
This shows there 1s a large amount
of water unaccounted
tor, part of which 1S used for
spr1rutling streets, schools, fountains,
flushing
sewers, etc.
MILWAUKEE, WIS.
In 1887 ~lwaukee
had a per capita consumption
of 113 gallons per day and to reduce this the metering
of factories, and places of business was begun.
caused a reduction of 4q% over the consumption
previous year.
This
of the
Since then the consumption per service
has been reduced 6~
and the per capita consumption
2~.
83.
7~Of
the services, including practically
factories, railroads,
all of the
etc. and some of the domestic
consumers, are metered and in 1904 the per capita
consumption had been reduced to 89 gallons per day.
In considering
the reduction of waste obtain-
ed by metering all water for trade purposes it must be
observed that 7Q% of the consumers using 5q% of the
entire supply are rai1way~, manufacturing and business
concerns so that 45 gallons per capita per day represants the amount used for domestic and public purposes
per day.
. :NEWARK, N. J.
In ~e99 tLev€ was an inspection made to
discover the wasteful consumers of Newark water and
these were metered.
consumption
ent 4~
This reduced the per capita
to 94 gallons per day in 1904 and at pres-
of tIle services
ccn:.:prI_y1r...g
'bJ.~lS
are metered.
From the ac~
pr1nt showing the consumption
and meter
curves from 1893 - 1903, ,it will be seen that voluntary metering had but little effect until 4116 meters
were placadon
the services of wasteful consumers
(about 10% of. the total number of consumers) selected
by inspection.
This reduced wastage to the extent of
3,000,000 gallons per day or 11% of the supply.
This
I
85.
advantage was held until 1903 the consumption increasing slightly with the population.
In 1904 there was
a 1eu~ge increase due to three causes:
(1)
Severe winter - water wasted to prevent pipes
from freezing.
(2) Dry summer.
Excessive quantity of water
used in sprl11kling streets, washing sidewalks, pavements, etc.
(3)
The increase of waste among the 48% of consUlll-
ers whose services were unmetered.
Rlcm.~Olm, VA.
Prior to 1897 the reservoir
was often drawn
down and occasionally nearly emptied during the winter months by the use of large quantities of water to
keep the pipes from freezing.
:Meters began to be
put in in 1897 and soon effectively checked this source
of waste.
By 1906, 7~
of the domestic, and 4~
of the total services were metered.
Meters have not
been used long enou~l to obtain any reliable data on
.their effect on the 'per capita consumption but curves
for the consumption and percentage of metering are
given on page
J 17
•
PROVIDENCE,
R. I.
Meters have been used in Providence
since
1872 and the percentage of metered services has gradually
increased as shown by the curves on page
from 4~
in 1877 t9 8~
in 1904.
the popu~ation increased 10~
consumption 17~
I .4
During this time
and the average per capita
or from 24 gallons per day to 67
gallons per day in spite of metering.
The result of
a special inspection in 1892 to determine if possible
the causes of wastage, showed that the high rate of
consumption then obtaining to be due to
(1)
Leakage resulting from the electrolysis
of the mainso
(2)
wastage in hydraulic elevators.
(3)
Large quantities of water used for trade
purpose.
At present 10q% of the services are metered
and a low per capita consumption,
about 50 gallons per
day, obtains.
ST. LOUIS,
IIiO.
In 1880 house-to-house
inspection to locate
1ealtS anc1 undue wastage, was made in
system has been maintained
lsvigorous
st. Louis and the
since then.
At times it
and efficient and at other times 1s just
the opposl\a.
.Results obtained by this system show
87.
that about 34 houses out of a hundred were wasting water and in 6~ of the houses wasting water, such waste
was due
to defective plumbing.
Meters were only
sparinglY introduced even though the house-to-house
.inspections at times were onerous to the water takers.
SPRINGFIELD, MASS.
Springfield has a high per capita consumption
in spite of the fact that 37i% of the services are
metered.
A bureau of inspection 1s maintained
which
inspects the unmetered services and from the very
meagre data available, considerable wast~ge 1s found
and checked in this way.
SYRACUSE, N. Y.
Comparison of the consumption
and number of
meters 1894 and 1904 shows in a general way the effect
of meteringo
1894
1904
CONSUMPTION per service, gals. per day
2210
747
Number of meters in use
1246
11059
Previous to 1894 the water supply was inadequate and data then obtained 1s of no value for comparison with other cities.
At present, one half of
the water supplied is sold by measure and 7~
of the
88,
domestic services are metered.
Water for trade uses
and that used by wasteful consumers is metered, yet
the per capita consumption remains high, 108 gallons
per day.
This may be due in part to the unusually
~arge amount of water used for public purposes, watering trough, fountains, etc., and to the large number
of hydraulic elevators and motors in use.
TAIDTTOH, MASS.
Since 1898 all water for trade purposes
and from 35 to
4Q%
been metered.
of the domestic consumption has
No very positive conclusions
can
be drawn from the data available but the following facts
are of importance.
(1)
to 4~
In 1904 the unaccounted-for
water amounted
of the entire supply.
(2)
There is still considerable wastage of water;
how much 1s hard to determine but probably not less
than 20% of the supply.
WELLESLEY,
Practically
for manufacturing
MASS.
no water 1s used in Wellesley
purposes and the domestic consumption
is the only one necessary to consider.
By the meter-
ing of all services this has been reduced by 30 or possibly
4Q%
of the quantity pumped before the usa of meters.
The 'L~accounted-for water still averaged, in 1901 to
1904, 43% of the amount supplied.
AllOWing 15% for
the slippage of pumps, and 5% for the under registration of meters would give a domestic per capita constunptlon of 28 gallons per day or a total of 45 gallons per day, leaving 14 gallons per day or 31% of the
total per ca.pitato covel" the water used fOl')fires,
flushing mains and leakage.
Lea~age from the mains,
from tests made in 1897, seems to be of small consequeuee.
WEST ORAJTGE, N. J.
The water supply of West Orange is in the
hands of a corporation buying and selling its water
entirely by meters.
Per capita consumption
not available but with a pressure
data is
of 401 to 1101 on
the 30 miles of pipe in the system, the company cannot
ace o1).nt for more.~than 80%
of the water supplied to
their system even With the most rigid inspection
to
locate lea'tcs.
YO~1KERS, N. Y.
All water pumped and sold in Yonkers is
measured by meters.
Without correcting
page of pumps the domestic consumption
for the slipis about 20
gallons per capita per day and the unaccounted
is about twice that amount.
for water
It is thOU~lt that prob-
ably not over 80% could be accounted
for in any event.
The c'xrves for per capita constunption and percentage
of metered se~llce from 1890 to 1905 are shown on
Page
I' 6 •
Table No. 12, prepared by ~~. Fuertes, 1s
~Q~4L
introducedA~
unaccounted
97
to show the relative percentages
for water in German and American
Which have a large percentage
od.
of
cities
of their services meter-
The~ Gel~!!lan
ci ties seem to have a sma.ller aver-
ago percontage
of rinaccounted-for water than do the
American but the reason for this is not apparent without a detailed study of the metering system generally
prevalent in the Ger~an cities.
From the foregoing data, Mr. Fuertes draws
the following general conclusionf.
nIt has been the universal
experience of
every city in the United states that wastage and
lewtage can not be satisfactorily
the use of meters on practically
controlled without
every service, do-
mostic, manufacturing, commercial and pUblic."
In drawing this conclusion he assumes but-'~
two methods of checking waste: (1) Frequent house-tohouse inspection With exa~inatlons
(2) Selling water by measurement
of the street mains.
(metering).
This leaves out of account the method of inspact10n in conjunction with the metering of wasteful
consumers but he concludes that if this system 1s in
operation for a considerable time practically all the
services will be metered and such cases might be
considered under method (2).
To further emphasize the truth of his conclusion, Mr. Fuertes groups the cities studied in four
classes, characterized as follows:CLASS A. nCities selling water on assessment
or frontage rates and in which waste reductions have
been acc~nplished by house-to-house
inspections, meter-
ing wasteful consumers, or combinations
of these methods,
and in Which When these results have been relaxed, the
good results obtained have ~een subsequently lost."
CLASS B. ftClties in which a considerable
portion of the services are metered, effecting some
improvement, but in Which wastage and lew{age are not
yet entirely under control."
CLASS
c.
ftCities in which wasta reduction
has been successful and in which the good results
secured have been permanently maintalned.ft
CLASS D.
"Cities in which water has been
sold by measure for-a good many years and in which
wastage and leakage have been and are now under as
perfect control as practicable of attainment."
Tables I, II, III and IV give statistics
for the four groups and in the main seem to justify
Mr. Fttertes' conclusions.
93.
TABLE I - CLASS A.
C
i t
Y •
Newark
Year referred
to.
Average
daily consumption
per capita.
Percenta.ge of
aorvicos
Years
elapsed
metered.
1898
J.13.0
10.0
n
190J.
94.0
32.0
3
n
1904
105.0
42.0
3
1889
210.0
0.6
n
1897
J.36.0
18.0
8
n
1905
181.0
27.0
8
Boston
J.883
91.5
It
1884
68.0
1
"
1892
95.0
8
n
1896
101.0
4
It
J.900
J.13.0
Detroit
J.l.8
4
94.
- CLASS B.
~~-~~---~~~~~-~~~-~--~~--~~-----~~~~--~~~-~~~--~~-~~-~~--~~~
Year re- Av. daily Percent- Number
Number
TABLE II
tarred
to.
City.
per cap.
consv.m:D-
It
1901
n
1904
tion in
ga' 1on8.
++
136
++
174
++
138
1899
1904
Cleveland
ichmond
tI
Springfield
n
1891
age of
of inhab1-
Metered
tants per
Services. service.
of
yaax's
elapsed
6
7.5
10
49
7.5
3
126
30
5.8
41
6.1
1893
129
++
117
++
17
5.3
1899
J.13
20
5.0
6
36
5.1
4
37
7.0
1
44
7.9
72
7.3
38
9.7
45
5.6
5
++
It
1903
216
++
t1
1904
130
+
yracuse
n
1898
1904
81102
6
++
aunton
1898
48
++
tI
1904
64
6
---~~~~~~~~-----~--~---~--~-----~~-~----~-----~~-~~----~--~-
+
Extraordinarily
large number of watering troughS
nd fountains in use in Syracuse.
+
Per consumer.
TABLE III - CLASS C.
C 1 t y.
___
Year refenred
Av.da11y
consulnp-
Percentage of
to.
tion in
gallons
metered
duction
services. was
._._.__ ..".~._.
u~er=--.:::d~a"'u..,i'.;..
Asbury Park, N.J. 1900
n
n
1884
225.0
30
1888
91.0
100
n
"
Conn.
n
Lawrence, Mass.
n
Lowell, Mass.
n
Madison, Wis.
It
It
It
It
It
It
Wellesley, Mass.
Permanent.
4
Permanent.
2
Perma.nent.
84.5
8
67
10
Pel"nanent.
1891
18~)7
60.0
189~)
llO.O
6
1904
70.0
94
1892
87.0
39
1904
42.0
87
1900
83.0
52
1903
51.0
65
6
1885
129.0
1898
'~50.0
92
1472.0+
1023.0
799.0
4
18
25
41.
814.0
58
614.0
66
POUghkeepsie,N.Y. 1876
n
71.
1884
Harr1sburg,Pa.
Hartford,
1874
_
52
1898
Fall Rivel",Mass.
--.;;;;.S-:;;'3-.:c_';..;;.;.r.-;a...;;d~.~
100
At1ailtlc CltY,N.J.1896
n
Results.
50
1901
Atlanta, Ga.
Time in
which ra-
1884
1886
1889
1892
1894
1890
1895
857.0
98.0
58.0
+ per sel~vlce
::.5
Pernanent.
13
Per!!lanent.
Probably
Per!~an3nt •
0.5
Pel"'nanent.
18
18
Permanent.
100
Permanent.
- - --
~
,..,.-,--
,'-
...............
C 1 t Y •
IV - CLASS D.
- .._ ... - -.. -.....TABLE
_ ..... - - ....-- .... - ........ .. - ... - _ ..- _ ......... - ..... - .. - - -..
,.. ~
'"-
Year re- Av.da11y
ferred
conswnp.
to.
per cap.
No.
o-t
years
elapsed.
Percentage
of' Services
Metered.
----~~-~_._-~~--~----~-~~~
.._-----~~~~~~--~~~~-------_
.... _-~~--~~~
1888
91
AtJ.anta
"
Fall River
"
Harrisburg
n
},[adison
n
M11waukee
n
Pou.g..1.1~eeJ?8i9
n
n
n
n
Providence
n
n
n
Wellesley
n
Yonlters
u
n
1904
1884
1902
1897
1904
1896
1904
1898
1904
76
33
40
60
65
67
16
All
All
18
95
7J.
8
28::>9
799+
8J.4
614
1892
1894
1899
1905
18~)l
l8D~;k
89
6
51
1904
78
1902
1904
89
94
23
9
4
-+ pel" sel~vlce.
65
.79
96
61
80
41
3
2
5
6
635
586
lOaO
1£3~.~5
60
7
75
63
64
67
58
55
1900
1004
67
58
66
80
86
63
69
83
86
100
100
98
96
100
$17,
TABLE Ho. 12.
Unaccounted
for Water.
Per
Cent.
lfetered.
City.
Brockton
Boston,
Year.
Total
per
Capi ta
per Day.
CIa's.
~.
Per
Cent.
79
1898
31.1
10.9
35
80
1899
33.4
11.5
.35
81
1900
33.2
10.8
32
83
1901
33.2
10.1
30
90
1902
36.0
12.0
33
90
1903
37.1
12.0
32
91
1904
36.9
13.3
26
1880
86.0
29.0
34
1892
95.0
32.0
34
96.0
20.0
21
lfass.
Cleveland
49
1904
Englewood
100
1888
93
1899
36.2
8.5
23
94
1900
36.4
7.9
22
95
1901
33.9
6.6
20
95
1902
40.5
8.7
21
100
1884
308.0'*
148.0
48
100
1885
238.0*
81.0
34
100
1886
256.0*
101.0
39
100
1887
313.0*
131.0
42
100
1888 (tyr. )
446.0*
173.0
39
Fall River
Hackensack
Hartford,
Harrisburg
Ct.
99
52
1904
62.0
24.0
39
1891
122.0
54.0
44
(1)
TABLE No. 12, cont.
Unaccounted
for Water.
City.
Per
Cent.
J!letered.
Harrisburg
Year.
Total
per
Capi t"a
per Day.
G-Q Is.
Q;:tr& •
Per
Cent.
1892
122.0
44.0
36
1893
121.0
44.0
36
l,tanufac-
1894
108.0
36.0
33
turing
1895
119.0
40.0
34
2/3
1896
107.0
30.0
28
1897
107.0
25.0
23
1898
122.0
28.0
25
1899
122.0
22.0
18
1900
133;0
25.0
19
1901
135.0
20.0
15
1902
134.0
20.0
15
1903
143.0
30.0
21
1904
146.0
30.0
21
84
1902
54.0
23.0
42
86
1903
42.0
12.0
29
87
1904
42.0
12.0
29
lIi1waukee
79
1904
89.0
14.0
16
Ridgefield
100
1886
175.0*
62.0
35
100
1887
133.0 *
10 ..
0
8
100
1888 (tyr.)
181.0 *
24.0
12
All
Domestic.
Lawrence
Madison
89
1897
44.0
17.0
39
92
1898
40.0
13.0
32
(2)
TABLE No. 12, cant.
Unaccounted
for 'Vater.
City.
]:1:adison
Per
Cent.
Metered.
Year.
Total
per
Capita
per. Day.
ern I~
~.
Per
Cent.
92
1899
42.0
15.0
36
94
1900
43.0
15.0
35
95
1901
50.0
17.0
34
95
1902
46.0
12.0
26
96
1903
56.0
22.0
39
96
1904
71.0
37.0
52
Syracuse
72
1904
108.3
20.0
19
Taunton
38
1898
48.6
14.3
29
40
1899
53.7
.15.2
28
41
1900
62.0
23.7.
38
42
1901
65.0
24.9
38
43
1902
54.0
15.3
28
45
1903
54.0
13.4
25
45
1904
64.0
24.8
39
Ware
100
1902
44.0
17.0
39
'\'le11esley
100
1901
48.0
20.6
43
100
1902
50.0
22.1
44
100
1903
55.0
23.2
42
100
1904
55.0
23.5
43
100
1905
Woonsocket
87
1902
29.0
7.0
24
Vforcester
95
1902
68.0
29.0
42
W. Orange
(3)
20
I
lO().
TABLE No, 12, cont.
Unaccounted
for Vlater,
City,
Yonkers
Per
Cent.
Metered.
Year.
Total
per
Capita
per Day,
G-(\, ~.
~
Per
Cent-,
98
1900
78.0
37,6
48
94
1901
84,0
41,4
49
94
1902
89.0
40.0
45
99
1903
88,0
37.0
42
100
1904
94,0
40.5
43
71
1895
15.3
2.0
13
73
1896
15,3
2.4
16
78
1897
15,8
2.7
17
100
1895
18,0
0.9
5
100
1896
18.2
1.6
9
99
1895
14.3
1.5
11
99
1896
15.2
1.5
10
99
1897
14.3
1.1
9
99
1898
13.2
1,3
10
99
-1899
14,3
1.4
9
100
1894
15.8
2.2
14
100
1895
24.3
2.9
12
100
1896
21,2
3,4
16
100
1898
14.3
4.2
29
100
1899
15.1
4.4
29
Stra1sund
100
1896
21.4
6.9
32
Bres1au
100
1889
19.5
3,5
18
100
1890
20.3
3.7
18
Bamberg
Berlin
Eisenach
Hannover
Rudo1stadt
(4)
J))l.•
TABLE No.
12, conti
Unaccounted
for tvater.
City,
Bres1au
Darmstadt
Gotha
Per
Cent.
lIetered.
Year.
Total
per
Capi t-a
per Day.
Ga
~.Is ..
Per
Cent.
100
1891
20.1
3.8
19
100
1892
21.7
5.0
23
100
1893
21.9
4~6
21
100
1894
22.2
4.6
21
100
1895
21.7
4.4
20
100
1896
23.2
3.9
17
100
1890
100
1891
13.5
1.6
11
100
1892
14.8
1.7
16
100
1893
18.0
2.9
16
100
1894
19.8
3.2
21
100
1895
17.4
2.4
13
100
1896
19,5
3.1
16
100
1897
20.3
3.5
17
100
1898
20.3
2.0
10
100
1899
21.4
2.2.
10
100
1900
21.4
2.2
10
100
1890
15.0
4.0
26
1891
13.2
3.3
25
11.3
3.1
28
12
\
All
1892
100
1893
9.8
2.7
28
1894
12.7
3.6
29
1895
12.7
3.6
30
(5 )
TABLE
City,
Gotha
lfagdeburg
lfainz
Mannheim
Per
Cent.
Metered.
no.
12, cant.
Unaccounted
for Water.
Year.
Total
per
Capita
per Day.
Go Is.
~.
Per
Cent.
All
1896
9,0
2.5
28
100
1897
11.6
2.6
26
1898
14.0
3.5
25
1899
10.3
2.3
22
1891
23.5
3.0
13
1892
23.8
2.8
11
1893
25.6
3.6
14
1894
26.4
4.6
17
1895
23.0
3,5
15
1896
24.8
3.8
15
1895
10.3
1.0
9
1896
11,9
0.6
5
189?
12.1
0.9
7
1898
12.4
0.8
6
1900
17.2
3.3
19
1892
18.2
2.7
15
1893
20.6
2.9
14
1894
18.5
2.4
13
1895
19.8
2.5
13
1896
20.1
1.9
10
1897
20.8
.2.2
10
1898
22.2
2.0
9
(6)
103.
TABLE No. 12, cant.
Unaccounted
for Water.
City.
Per
Cent.
l'letered.
Mannheim
Potsdam
Q,ued1iilburg
All
100
Strassburg
Year.
T.otal
per
Capi ta
per Day.
G~ Is.
~.
Per
Cent.
1899
22,7
2.7
12
1900
22.5.
3.4
15
1882
4.5
0.9
19
1892
17.2
1.7
10
1893
17.4
2.8
16
1894
18.5
2.1
11
1895
14.5
0.9
6
1896
12.7
1.6
12
1888
4.8
0,6
12
1889
5.5
0.9
16
1891
7.4
1.0
14
1892
10.0
3.3
33
1893
10.0
2.7
27
1894
7.4
1.3
17
1895
7,6
1,5
20
1896
8.2
1,8
22
1896
21.1
2.2
10
1897
19.0
2.0
10
1898
21,1
2.2
10
1899
23.7
2.4
10
1900
27.2
2.8
10
(7)
104.
TABLE Ho. 12, cont.
Unaccounted
for Water.
City.
Weimar
Worms
Per
Cent.
Metered.
Year.
Total
per
Capi ta
per Day.
G-cil&
~.
Per
Cent.
1890
13.7
2.7
20
1891
14.2
2.0
14
1892
15.0
3.2
21
1893
16.6
2.4
15
1894
16.9
3.5
21
1895
14.2
2.2
15
1896
14.5
2.5
17
189?
14.5
3.8
26
189?
21.1
2.3
11
1898
25.3
3.6
14
1899
27.2
2.2
8
1900
28.8
2.0
7
*Consumption per water taker not per capita.
Allowance made for slippage of pumps and under registration
of meters in practically all of above cities.
(8)
105.
PART VIII.
THE EFFECT OF nffiTERSON THE CONSIDAPTION OF WATER.
Until recently it has been assumed that
meters were not only the best means of selling wate~
but also the qUickest and most lasting means of producing a low per capita consumption.
~~. Brackett
has already pointed out tUlton, Malden, Belmont,
Providenco, Brockton and Fall River as examples of
What metering can accomplish.
strange to observe but
nevertheless true, these towns and cities along with
some, others as for instance Pittsburg, Cleveland, and
Newark, are always in the foreground While many others
also largely metered have up to recently never appeared in print.
Mr. James H. Fuertes u~tlmately came to
the conclusion after investigating waste and prevention
in New York, that a large quantity 1s wasted in various
ways and that the maximum reduction Which can be expected by the general use of meters is 15 gallons per person
per day.
In the average unmetered city consumption,
75 - 100 gallons per person per day, Where there are no
unusual conditions the maximum reduction Which could
be obtained would probably be 15 gallons.
On Marcll
13th, 1907, 1.~. W. S. Johnson read a paper before the
meeting of the New England Water Works Association in
Which he tried to prove that high consumption does not
lOG.
neceRs8~11y mean wastefulness
on the part of the con-
s~~ar, and that it cannot, in all cases at least, be
reduced to a low figure.
The
following diagrams have
been classified for a purpose into Classes A and B.
Those under
A
are 1~. Johnson's and were presented by
him to show that meters have not proved their supposed
value in a great many places -- the places for which
the diagra~s are dra\Yn are typical of large groups of
cities and towns.
sat those of A.
Those under B are presented
to off-
Since the discussion of these di~-
grrons leads to a consideration
of other features of
the problem a review, with remarks, of meter tests immediately follows this account.
Now to proceed with
this matter logically ~ the advantages, apparent or real
to be proved, and the disadvantages
are as noted:-
Advantage~1
(a) A consumer will pay for all the water he uses Whether
he wastes it or not.
(b) He will not waste any more than he can help if he
has to pay for all of it.
(e) The consumers therefore become the inspectors and
the city is relieved of that expense.
l
10'7.
Disad.v~ntages:
(a) High consumption mayor
may not be checked since
large consumers in manufacturing
pursuits will continue
to be large consumers.
(b) Small consumers may be independent
(c)
The city very lil{ely has to pay
and allow their
fOl"'
the meters,
their installation and meter readings.
(d) Meters do not help the le~{ages in street mains and
illicit use connections - these must still be found by
district meters, and inspection.
(e) Meters reqUire considerable care to preserve the
accuracy and sensitiveness,
SUCll
as it iSt
that they poss-
ess when new.
(r) If the consumer discovers that his water bill does
not increase much when he begins to use water more
freely after the moral effect of measurement
?
has worn
off a little ) he will soon be using water as generously
as he did before the meter was attached.
In order to compare the effect of metering in
different places let now be considered the factors which
must be kept constantly in mind both to draw correct
conclusions from data at hand and to take account of when
lOR ..
new data.
collecting
These factors
of pumps supplying
appear
to be:-
(1)
Slippage
(2)
Extent of main pipe lines and their condition.
(3)
Character
(4)
Use of water for public purposes.
(5)
Existence
of and changes
Effect
for
purposes.
of introduction
These are the important
markedly
in water suppljr.
or entrance of large consumption
manufacturing
(6)
the town or city.
different
of sewers.
factors
which would
explain very
effects in various places
knovm and 1010wn with some degree
were they
of accuracy.
all the. present data based
But what is almost
upon?
Great stress has always been laid on "per
capitan
consumption
and no mention
and. pel") cent. of metelled
has l)een made of the
factors
that nper capitan consumption depends~
uncertainty envelops
service
on which
A great mist of
(1), (2), (4) and very small
attention has been paid to (3), (5), and (6).
some data has been collected
conclusion
by
can then be arrived
success and failure of meters
kind
of data, the s~ne factors
and a ccmparison
therefore,
Mr. Johnson.
at.
fi1'e
are
On (6)
This
Dlagram~ showing the
based
on the same
left out of account,
though fair to both classes,
mayor
may not show anything.
1w.
Clemens Herschel
characterized the above by saying that nWe are limping along with leaden feet in the distant w~~e of uncertain
and obsolescent statistics",
his statement should be apparent.
and the truth of
Still we must go
ahead on the assumption that in a large collection of
neglect of the factors previously enumer-
statlst~cs
atcd in all cases creates, probably, a fair basis for
comparison of units, representative
of units.
of large groups
Because it might happen that some one
should be unfortunate enough to select towns
cities in which uruOlown
and
to him (2) wasted much water
and (5) had taken place, thus sltowing a failure of
meters vnlen co-ordinated with
nper
capita consumption",
the following letter was sent out to places for which
some of
Mr.
Johnson's curves are drawn and to date on-
ly the city of Lawrence has replied.
Engineer in oharge of Water Supply,
City of, etc.
Dear Slr:In relation to the problem of Water Waste in
Cities and Means of Prevention, which we are 1nvestigat1ng, can you find time to inform us of the proportion of
total supply used for other than domestic purposes, whether or not this proportion has been nearly constant for
the past ten years; and how large a factory class of
people (employees) you supply.
Tharu:1nb you in advance, I am
etc.
--------_.~~~-~~-~-~-----~~~--~---~-----~~--~--------~~From answers to this letter some idea might have been
formed on the error if any in lw. Johnson's curves,
but since the oracles r~fused to speak with but one
exception the results of 1~. Johnson and others will
now be taken up on the assumption made on the preceding page with the exception of Lawrence.
Passing directly to the curves of Class A, we
will first consider figure 1.
Cities outside of New
England in which in 1895 the per cent. of metered services was over 25 show an increase of 14 gallons per
person per day in ten years either because the meters
becrone inefficient and the consumers discovered the
fact or some unusually large uses of water for other
than domestic purposes had arisen in the towns and
cities.
It is highly probable that in so large a
group of cities as used in making the diagram a very
considerable portion of the 14 gallons increase is due
to failul.e of meters either through their own defects
I
14<J
.,/
~
Cl
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k,QS Iou/s.
I""
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/21:
e/~
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(2$
p';
t/.
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'rf/B~ \;"
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e/;I; ~. ........ I~:I~'
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.....
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tiftA
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rem
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",s I IrlYhl rkl'lt ~
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or: 'SI1JII>"
'I1J1..1f
tl
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p(1J'
,,),
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--
~1U1 ~m
~-J. l:sen lcq.s
(1/'1;
SQIr.
if~Wi
"S
p.--
kd )
J V -- ~
.-~-f""
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~.,.
~.( I';" J.oYh
CA".!lox
Ik,,~
'M ~E.9.f-
~
ca
10
J
~
I
I
112~
in supel~r1sion.
Where the meters were continuously
attached (b, figure 1) we see the moral and mechanical
effect of fresh new meters produced a drop of one gallon per capita.
Now manufacturing
and other purposes
may have also arisen in these cities but still there
1s the reduction.
It can be concluded therefore that
most of the foregoing 14 gallons increase was due to
the above noted reason.
Again it may be noted that
New England cities and t9wns in Which the percentage
of metered services has increased more thWl 25% (see
figure 1, d) show an increase of 11 gallons which is
opposite to (b).
It would not seem reasonable to as-
sume tllat all of (b) remained in the same condition
While the majority of (d) were unfortunate
enough to
start up manufactul les and large consumption.
l
A 6 gal-
lon increase is shown by (e) against a much larger increase shown by (e).
It seems safe to conclude that
places represented by (b) and (e) were mUch benefited
by the introduction
of meters while in those places
represented by (e) and (d) meters have not been successfUl.
Looking for a moment at this table presented
as table ~
in 1~. Johnson's account, the effect of an
introduction of a large nUmber of meters Within a short
period is shown.
The immediate effect is a reduction
113.
Incroase in per- 1890 -- 1905
1900 -- 1905
No.- of---increase
ccntuge of meter- No. ----rncr'easein
ConsuJnp. Ge.ls. places. 1n coned services.
of
sump. GaIn
places. per person
per day.
pel' pel'S on
per day.
Less than 10
27
36
95
7
33
].
J.O
25
25
J.O
25_
50 .
J.6
9
J.1
J.4
More
than
50
J.2
-
4
6
-J.7
in the quantity of water used but while the introduction
of more than 25% of metel'ed services wi thin five years
reduces the consumption,
the introduction
of the same
number in a period of 15 years does not prevent an increase in the consumption.
It thus seems that a
certain amount of waste has been cllecked but the conGumption increased.
The figures 2 - 7 inclusive
in: consumption
show the increase
in thoroughly metered cities and it 1s.
very substantial.
Provided meters are a good means of
checking waste this increase may be called the normal
increase in the consumption With' all reasonable precautlo~s'taken
against waste.
Consequently figures
2 - 7 shoW an increasing consumption in sp1te of metel:ls.
114.
Fig,3
00
eo
,.
ll5.
/0
0
0'0
.
/VI
],).6.
-
-
20
I
80,
I.00
"
l'ji
I
,L~G
",'
~,
~JZ)
~
~
~'2<J
'-.,
I~
;
~
'~
f(!
y
0
/V
-
~ 'Vi< w
io""
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117.
118.
/d 0
Bp
....
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1/ ~~
-
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:
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ryt
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l~_g •
Figure (9) Rlcltmond, Va. shows well the lmmediate effect of meters on an abnormally large con-
A great reduction takes place, low con-
sumption.
sumption continues for a few years and then the conGumption creeps up proving tbat metering
alone without
care and inspection 1s not lasting.
Figures (8) and (10) Neeffilam
and Attleboro,
show decidedly that the wholesale introduction
meters failed to even check the consumption
of
for more
than a year.
Some truth there" may be in What
Mr.
Johnson
said about Reading, Lowell, and Lawrence in reeard to
change in water supply from bad
to
good.
He claimed
that a dirty water supply lead to high consumption.
Reading (fig. 11) really does seem to show a rapid decline in constunption for some reason before meters
were genere~ly introduced.
It is probably fair in
tp~s case to give the true reason for the diminished
consumptionas
a good filtered water supp1y introduced
abou.t a year before the general introduction
of meters.
But the futv.re alone will show Whether or not the meters
will keep the cu~ve of consumption
low.
A great dlf-
rarenes of opinion exists about Lowell's change in
water suppl~r.
l~. Robert J. Thomas, Supt. of the
~
I,!
;
120.
Water
Works
of Lowell,
ing was optional,
but in 1900,
hence
that before
large per capita
So in 1908 Lowell
In relation
consm!~t1on
had the lowest
a new supply
did not fall as in Lowell,
reascn
was not correct.
supply
of Lawrence
Concerning
very likely
The answer received
lw.
from Lawrence
1904, 1905 and 1906.
..-:_
,.-.' ...-
__
METERED.
Do- Tot81
lilas-incl.
tic. mfg.
1904 17.2
26.3
.-r_
Mr.
hence
Johnson
in regard
The following
out
Johnson's
in water
is again
v~ong.
to the problem
of the Water
Table
gives
Board
data for
Per capita per day consumption.
..
..
_
~
__
NOT METERED.
Domestic
Sf,reat,Flre, metered
Sewer and un- and not
metered
consumel"S.
_
..
__
Total
metered,
note metared,
not 1nc~.and mf[;.
Manuf'B. etc.
_
%
metel~etl
17.2
80.5
12.'7%
24.2
21.2
12.3% or
35.8
81.0
services.
1906 16.
25.5
20.
J.l. eJb at
SeryiC9s.
_
_
of
metered
servlC6B.
of
sSl"vic as.
1905 .15.3
for
of water but the
the change
was in the form of three annual reports
to the City Council.
consumption
W~. Thomas pointed
to Yonkers,
that it also had obtained
-_
consumption;
after driven
due.
17 years.
_
1900 meter-
well-water had been introduced,
to
was done by the city andAthis the reduction was
metering
really
made a point
81.6
...
I
I
I,
I
From this table the domestic consumption
1s onl~l about
16 gallons per person per day while the non-metered
which includes assessment
takers, sewer flush1ng, fire
purposes, and street sprinkling is about 20 gallons
per c~ita
~
per day, provlnr conclusively
have accomplished
consumption,
that meters
very good results on the domestic
thus showing that about half the consumpt:ton
cannot be altered at all by house meters.
Many thanlcs
are due to the Lawrence Water Board for keeping such
good statistics.
It is careful records like these
m11ch will solve the problem of success or failure of
meters.
Looking now at what Mr. Johnson said about
what met.ers can be expected to accomplish we find very
good statistics on amount of water used to prevent
freezing of services, amounts used in factories and
amounts used in residential
towns.
Comparing Fall Rive!' and Needham, Mr. Johncon shows
by.
a tabla that in Needham, a strictly resi-
dential town, the high consumption
1s due to the pres-
once of a large number of firs;t,class residences,
in Fall River the ~ow consumption
of a 1uajority of residenc8
and
is due to the presence
of the poorer class.
natural differences cannot be overcome by meters.
These
122.
In regard to Brockton very little water' 1s
used in the shoe shops; in Fall River the water ~sed
by -the factories 1s obtained from independent
Mr.
sources.
Johnson's statement that the results obtained in
North Attleboro and Reading due to favorable natural
and mechanical features cannot be obtained in Norwood,
Taunton and Watertown
by
further metering 1s unquestion-
a.bly true.
A table was shown by him to prove that almost half the water drawn from sources of supply is unaccounted for by meters and it did show this fact,
but the meters were really accomplishing good results
as far as they were concerned.
In th!s same trend
pa.9ll
the following recant memorandaAof
1'2.4
,
the Boston Water
Works is introduced to show great leakage in street
mains.
The question seems to be whlcll saving 1s the
greatest - street leakage or house waste?
Of course
the only efficient way to prevent waste is to look to
both street and house and to continually follow up a
well settled plan.
Now consider the curves of Class B.
Newark,
N. J. has already been described but here it is well
to nota that the diagram shows this fact, 1.a. that
meters. When set in SUfficient number with care reduce
the cons....
unpt ion.
The diagram for Cleveland, Ohio shows
123.
the same fa.ct. That for Pittsburg, Penn. shows tha.t
meters do reduce the consmnption.
In the above cases,
however, it should be noted that the final consumption
is still qUi te high.
Figure 17 is drawn to show that the consumption of water: in cities With over 5q% of services metered is reasonably low.
The average line decreases
8 gallons in the eleven years, but does not include
the effect of the two erratic lines at the top or the
diagroon.
This diagram was presented by Mr. Morris
Knowles, in his remarks on Mr. Johnson's
account.
The average line does seem to refute Figure 1, but
f'ttrtherillvestigation
diagrffin
might show tha.t tl10 01 ties of
17 are favo~able to low consumption.
however, another factor of great importance,
acc~racy and durability
There ls,
vlz. the
of meters.
Mr. Joh-~ W. Hill presented
a paper before
the American Society of Civil Engineers
extensive tests on small meters.
in lSg9 giving
These tests throw
some li~1t on l~. Johnson's curves and confront us with
the diffiCUlty
of bU1lding
a meter which will be suf-
ficiently accurate to register all the water passing the
service Whether just flowing or rushing at full velocity.
M
e;»l Of G\ "t1
d ~ ri:~1a S+oYI11ateY
\f'f 0 S Daily
cr
Night
Average
Rate.
Bri. H. S. Pop. 7600
Cons~unption.
Aug. 1908 Before inspection
1,232,900
800,000
956,800
621,700
Oct. 1906 After inspection
(22%)
Charlestown L.S. Pop. 39,000
Sept. 1906 Before
Novo 2906
After
inspection
inspection
In spite of unsatisfactory
7,206,400
4,919,400
5,975,200
3,880,000
(21%)
inspection.
BELLE'V'""uE
TA1ITC WASTE.
The only section of the City in which any
systeme.tic inspection
for waste has been done in the
last 8 years was the section
supplied 'from Bellevue
Tank in 1906.
In July the daily average
consumption
757,300 gallons and the corresponding
this section being practically
gallons,
the population
was
night rate, (in
all waste) was 549,000
being 4000.
The territory
was tested by a Deacon Meter
~~d a proper inspection
carried out, with the result
that the daily average
consumption
in Nov. was 458,800
gallons with a nl~~t rate of 218,900
savl~~ of 300,000 gallons
daily.
gallons,
making
a
J.25.
The fo1loulng
leaks were detected
on services
or pipes outside of residences.
12ft joint on Corey
st.
galJ.ons daily
wasting
108,000
"
33,600
"
38,400
"
5/8" service
on Hemlocl~ St.
5/8" s61"vlca
on Bellevue
st. It
---------:L90,000
"
"
"
"
Of the 300,000 gallons saved daily, 180,000
gallons
or 6q% was on leaks outside
never have been stopped by ~eterlng
remainder
120,000 gallons
and which would
houses,
while the
or 4q% would have been regis-
tered on meters and either repaired
or paid for.
fY EWARt';)
N. J.
Cl. B.
14-
'~I(t't
p~~~-i-ak ~'!t.IU~d...(~
P'
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,~
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,,1.4
,
~
\
~\
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V
('t)
~
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'>
~
0
~
~
~
187.
REDVC-r,of'/
of
PER-CAPITA
COr<SV~PT)Ol'(
~METERIr<6
CLEVE-LAND
~
PlI;}'
"
~
c ."
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,90 6
JYl ETe-(?\
lYe;
(;l'\(b
8~'OFORD
D'STRICT
rrrrs(3
/6°
1""
ar
tr
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FLucTlJATJDN"S
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f%RVsrITI'l
WATEf<)~C/Tl£~w1h
PE RCE"]YT
(')
U~Eo{hARG!f
r- M ET~ RE TJ
S E. RY'I
c€.~
Mr. Hill investigated the precision of registry with
widely varying rates of delivery and investigated the
loss of pressure by passing different quantities of
water tl~ough meters. in a given length of time.
The Meters
tested were:
x
the Worthington
x
Union rotary and ColQ~bia
x
Crown
x
Hersey and Hersey disk
Lambert
z
Trident disc
z
Niagara
z
Pittsburg
z
Standard disc
~ =
PlstOt1
Z:o. DlSc.
Columbia
z
Nas:h.
Columbia (a velocity or Infel~entlal meter).
The meters ware connected with 3/4ft service
pipe ~~d pressure. varied from 85 - 106 pounds.
The
cO!l~itiom as far as possible wel--e such as the meter in
actual use is sUbjected to.
The l--es1;]. ts of the tests
are as follows:
130.
Rotary and Pittsburg rather poor and most of the
meters
not register
dj.d
enough.
The Hersey meter
would
not work when orifice became less than 1/8ft and dischal"ga 172.58 per hour.
Table of results.
Cu. ft.
meter.
By
Tank.
Ratio
10.59
1.333
1.3460
-1.0087
J.0.68
1.000
1.1953
-1.1953
J.1.24
1.667
1.6690
-1.004
10.98
2.000
J..9943
+ .9972
10.80
1.333
:1..391.0
-1.0446
:1.0.99
1.000
l.2600
-J..2600
10.95
1.000
1.1.63~5
-J..1.633
.833
J•• 8749
-2.292l
ll.l5
1.667
1.8779
...1.]~20.
lJ .• BB
~.OOO
l.3278
-l.5278
l~~. 62
1 ..
333
J..6048
-3..2062
45.65
2,,000
2.~535
-J..0758
45.l7
:1.000
1.2J.J.0
-J..2~Ll0
Gallons per hour.
Disk
10...
99
132..
Comparison of errors of Registry.
No.
ERR
tests. Max.
Meter.
Order
of
0 R
Min.
Average
Test.
-------~~~~~-~---~~-~-~---~-~~~-~----~~-~---~-~-~~-~--~-~
PISTON
Worthington
18
+10.32
+0.67
+2.08
Crown
J.5
- 9.45
-3.77
-6.28
10
Hersey
10
3.64
+0.53
...
2.15
1
Empire
23
...
0.86
+0.23
-0.~8
:L6
-3.6.34
+0033
-2.32
2
Union Rotary
DISK :METERS
Nash
15
-
-0.04
-0.38
4
Hersey
5
15
9
13
-
0.75
.J.5
+ J..31
-0.25
+0.22
Trident
15
.. 4.27
-0.04
-0.75
6
Trident
6
-20.~3
-O.O~
-6.88
7
Trident
6
-14.05
-1.32
-5.70
8
P:Lt.t, S.O'U.i;"g
8
lIoco6.37
-0.66
-19 a 50
3
Pi ttshD.rg
11
-:L0.?'1 -0.60
11-
Niagal')a
13
-24:.68
-0.37
-.-.4.77
12
Niagapa,
1.5
-17.10
-0.32
-2.56
16
S t and.&U"ll
14
-
+2.119
-0.,35
l'7
Lambert
11
-lry.4:2
0040.84
-5.ll
14
Columbia
19
+66.3l.
-0.78
~------~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~
7.lA
-3.05
INFERENTIAL
Certain. meters
-
~
accurate for ordinary rates
I
ot dra.ft. ware incapable of measur1ng smaller discharges
and these smaller discharges more nearly resemble the
138.
leakage in domestic plumbing and therefore should be
measu~ed.
If meters approximate to 5% accuracy they do
as much as can be expected.
Concerning Mr. Hill's
tables all meters were tested When discharge was low
240 - 250 gallons per day were about 10 - 3q% out,
Which me~~s that supposing you want to check waste
between 1 - 4 A. M. by reading meter" the amount Which
can pass th~ugh
unmeasured
is ~en gallons.
In fact
the percentage of error is great enough to allow a
meter to pass without registry 40 gallons in 24 hours.
Some assert that a meter 1s safe to use until error is
~.
This passes more than 40 gallons par 24 hours.
At the house taps a greatly reduced pressure
exists due to loss of head in passing through meter.
Diso vibration can ba observed for vary small flows
Which tha meter will not register.
This table gives
rates of flow at Which meters begin to register after
4 months use.
Cu. ft. ner sec.
Galls. per min.
Union Rotary
.00051
0.23
Crown
.00068
0.51
Hersey Rotary
.00126
0.57
Trident
.00047
0.21
Thomson
.00047
0.21
Played out.
--~~---~.~~~~~~~-~~-~~~-~~~~~--~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~
From above in an hour .23 X 60 = 12 - 14 gallons un-
Hersey Disc
registered wh1ch would allow considerable waste.
The foll?wing statements have been made
James H. Harlow: athat on account of freezing
0. u \\
0"'"'
flaws water meters don~' register 7~
of amount of
water used by consumers, and a meter which will register small flows must be found.'
Mr. W. C. Hawley stated that Rotary Crown
and Hersey t~~es when stopped pass from 60 - 75%
of amount they pass when running.
Unless inspection
or reading takes place quite often a meter may be
stopped for qUite a While undiscovered.
When a con-
a~~er 1s paying for metered water he escapes of the
meter stops registering but continues to pass water.
Disc meters have been found to be better, st~11
erit wears them in such a way that anything less than
a 118ft stream 500 - 4000 gallons per 24 hours may
pass without being registered.
1~. Kittchling thinks house waste due to
1eaks
W\\\ \'\~)\
WOn-4,
be registered
by meters.
He says that
meters do not register 5q% of 72 gallons in 24 hours.
l~. Rafter of Rochester
thinks the question
of metering 1s still open.
From the above remarks it appears that 1~.
Johnson's curves may tell great truths and the reasons
are that meters are not sufficiently
sensitive and are
l34.
very likely to get out of adjustment, i.e. cease
registering.
Because if meters do not register all
the time the per capita consumption curve will be high.
In conclusion then of the effect of meters on
consv~ptlon it may be said that there is right on both
sides but the question of the good resulting from meters
is still open.
.tef
m~.'t~lngall
problem.
However, improvements in meters and
services will solve the domes tic
CD
nsumptlon
PAR'!' IX.
COHCLUSIOnS.
Before giving our conclusions
on UWater
Waste in Cities and Means of Prevention",
we wish
to repeat the statement made in the earlier part of
this thesis, 1.e. Realizing
the futility of recommend-
ing any method of preventing
wasta for unknown looal
conditions, we have not attempted to draw any conclusions save of the most general nature.
From a study of all available data on this
SUbject, law{ag~ and wastage may be divided into two
general. classes:
I..
Lea!ts in the mains and service pipes out-
side of' houses.
II.
Wastage inside buildings.
The amount of wastage in the mains and ser-
vice pipes outs1de of houses (I) 1s dependent ons(A)
Length ot P1pes.
(B)
Number of valves and connections
and their
condition and efficiency.
(e)
Character of joints and mains.
1.
Method of making joints and connections
and worlonanship.
2.
(D)
Degree of corrosion of pipes.
Number of illicit water twcers.
l3A~
The a~ount of wastage in bUildings (II) is
dependent upon (A)
Use to Which buildings are put, - manufaot-
uring, hotels, residences, tenements, stores, offices
and public bUildings.
(B)
Number and kind of fixtures.
1.
Effect of tanks, overflows into sewers,
leaky ball-cocks, etc.
(e)
Condition of fixtures and plumbing.
(D)
Type of pl~~bing (modern, well designed, etc.)
(E)
Character of Occupants.
(F)
Wilful waste by Inhabitants.
The above we consider as a statement of the
essential factors in the problem, but it is difficult
if not impossible, even in any particular
case, to
estimate quantitatively the amount of wastage chargeable
to each of the two oauses.
In general, under normal
conditions it may be said that the wastage and lewtage
in the buildlnBs 1s greater than lew{age alone from the
mains.
Some of our data seemed to show that this was
not true but upon going further into the details it
was found in
each case that either one of the mains
was broken or a 1arge valve open, or the water used in
spr1ru{11ng streets and flushing sewers was charged
unaccounted-for
water, to the street mains.
as
137~
The wastage in the street mains and service
pipes outside of the houses either consists of a large
number of small leaks, in the aggregate making a large
total, perhaps, but difficult of detection and suppression without the expenditure of a large amount of time
and money, or to a relatively
small number of open
blow off valves, etc. and in the latter case the suppression of negligence on the part of the city employees will also suppress the wastage.
The leakage in the bUildings 1s usually
not difficult of detec~ion as it is above ground but
the wastage cannot always be so readily located.
to~~
Wastage. and leakage in the bUildings is theraboth
~
~
in
amoUL~t and in ~ase of detection, greater than the
leakage from the mains and service pipes in the ~at
•
The best method to be used in checking
lew{age and wastage 1s dependent solely on the comploteness of waste reduction desirable.
This is deter-
minad by the value to the city of the wasted water
Q\
and in general ~he 1atter item 1s proport1on~
to the
cost of obtaining water and of operating and ma1nta1ning the supp1y system.
Ass'~ing our conc1usion,that
the greater part
of the wastage 1s inside the bUildings, to be true,
and that this wastage When prevented or 1argaly checked
gives t~e required total waste reduction, the following methods may be adopted if legislative
action
and local conditions permit.
I.
II.
III.
Inspection alone.
Metering.
Combinations
of the above and the Deacon
System.
Assuming it is deemed advisable to reduce
wastage and leakage to the lowest possible figure,
the following methods may be used.
I.
II.
III.
Deacon Waste Detecting System.
Petometer Waste D~tecting System.
Either (I) or (II) or some similar system,
with universal metering, metering wasteful consumers,
separate inspection, stamping of fittings and inspection
of plmnbingjor any or all of them, either alone or in
combination with others.
The above methods of waste reduction are not,
of course, the only ones which might be used but they
are the methods employed with more or less success in
the cities studied.
Which system will prove the best
under the same conditions it is almost impossible to
say for no city has, so far as we know, ever installed
two different systems, each for a period of years, and
compared results.
If such a thing had been done, it
1s doubtful if the results would show anything very con-
elusively/due
to changing conditions,
and to discrep-
ancies, confusion and lack of uniformity
mant
or
data.
Nevertheless
of arrange-
the tendency towards
accuracy in water waste statistics
is growing and as
the problem becomes more clearly defined, the conclusions
drawn from the data obtained will be more correct and
the problem, as a whole, will be ultimately
ly solved.
.
completa-
CORR}1JSPO~iDRUCE SHOWING
MOST RECE1TT DATA.
PART X.
Cone~~pt1on of wntar.
(a) .General por C01'1td consumption.
(b) Domestic eons~p~1on.
( e) Publ! c consurrpt :ton.
i. o. PountQ1ns and Public Eul~dlnBo;
Fl.t1.sh1r~
sa?1arc;
StrOQlt epr lnlt1.ing_
2.
Q;'J.ent1t:,1'
s.
~~D~tlty wastod duo to houso aofoots suoh aSI
',tlc,;te,!'
'11.oated due to d.o!'isetB in stroet
broal~a and fixtures
4.
lJroana
5.
Sf.
ot
atl.e~t 'lTln1n law~G.
dat(}ctl~r;
Per
eo~t, of metored
houso
quo.l~.ty or water' o....
lvpl.1ed., t:othod
dolivored
to t:\6 01 ty
lJU..'"!lP ,.;'h~t effoct
7.
fOl""r,t-
cont~ol11n8 .laa!tQgo and \.VtlGtonge in housos.
(e)
6.
of dorsa tlva
malns.
Is thore
(\rl1.n:the::,
8&l""'11008.
of
:-ac,rrdln8 B!!1ott.'1.t.
by pU1:lp or nat.ol"; if by
'has s11ppcg31)
any rn.<;trlcoCJ. d1f~oronce
in
pOl"
caplta
in d!rre~Qnt ports ot city dus to class
11tl'biting said
pe.rt?
connumpt1on
or people in-
COpy.
-14.-;-.- ..
Office of the
Engineer Commissioner of the District of Columbia.
Washington, D.
e.,
May 12, 1908.
Dear 81rs:I have the honor to sUbmit the accompanying
blue-print in answer to your communication
Ultimo.
As, Washington
of the 30th
is not a manUfacturing
it is safe to assume that 9~
city,
of the minimum night
rate is waste.
The method employed in the detection and prevention of the underground waste is by means of the
Cole Fladd Pitometer, and briefly, is as follows:
A nu~ber of squares are isolated and fed
through.a single main on Which a pitometer is set and
photographic records showing the consumption and rate
of consumption obtained.
In a resldentla1 section, the rate of flow
at the dead of night is used as a criterion, and'unless tho per capita consumption is found abnormal,
districts Where there is no night consumption are of
necessity normal.
Where a night consumption 1s found, its
sources are traced, by segregating squares one after
the other, until the total consumption is accounted for.
House to house inspection of the troublesome
squares is made, and With the help of the aquaphone,
l4B.
not only leaking fixtures, but underground
the sel~vlce pipes are detected.
breaks 1n
Where this inspection
does not eliminate the trouble, the source of waste 1s
located directly with the pitometer.
The waste thus prevented in the period from
October 12th last, to the 2nd instant, amount to
2,751,550 gallons per day, and the sources of waste
were as follow:
Broken main, blow-off found partly open,
and derective joints,
Broken services, including defective
wiped joint"s in modern
lead s el~v1ces,
Bad 1ew{ing fixtures, repairs to which
was demanded immediately,
Total,
766,700
1,756,850
228,000.
2,751,550
Besides this, notices ot over 2,000 leaking
fixtures were forwarded to the proper Division for repairs.
It has not been possible to differentiate
be-
tween the waste due to 1ew(1ng fixtures and fixtures
left running, or careless waste; on account of the
long time necessary to have these repairs made.
The breaks in services were, with one exception, in black iron pipes; While in lead services,
the trOUble, With the only exception noted above, was
due to defective wiped joints.
The amount of waste due to leaking fixtures
and fixtures carelessly left open, has been about
equal to the underground
waste; although the ratio
between the two varies greatly according
acter of the residences.
to the char-
In the metered district all
waste, with the exception of that found in municipal
and government bUildings,
was due to underground
leaks.
Another source of waste characteristic
our city 1s found in the municipal
bUildings, which being unmetered,
of
and governme-nt
and the mains and
fixtuxtes, not under our supervision; are always to be
fruitful
sour'cas of waste.
The following 1s a table showing the savings
resulting from investigation
t10ned bUildings:
of the supply of the rnenGallons pel" day.
U. S. Navy Yard
u.
2,004,000 .
S. Soldiers Home
175,000
U •.5. state, War and Navy Building
126,000
Washington Asylum
~l5,000
Three Public Schools
103, 509-_~.
Total.
2,523,500
Very respectfully,
(Signed) OCTAVIUS C. SMITH,
in charge of Pitometer
Surveys.
144,
COpy.
City of Rochester,
Department of Engineering.
Rochester, N. Y., May 12th, 1908.
l45s
In the year 1902 I prepared a statement for
}~yor Rodenbeck in which I estimated the percentage
water used for various purposes, and unaccounted
of
for.
The total use was estimated at 13,800,000 gallons per
dayo
Of this amount 4,813,700 gallons per day, or 3~
passed through meters.
There was estimated as used for
public purposes and rebates to charitable institutions
and not paid for 1,500,000 gallons per day, or 11%;
used and wasted, unmetered,
3,243,900 gallons, or 23%;
leakage in reservoirs and mains, estimated at 1,500,000
gallons, or 11%, leaving a balance of supply unaccounted for of
2Q%.
I presume that a considerable
portion of this 2q% was wasted through leaky services.
I believe that a similar estimate made at the present
time would show considerably less of the supply unaccounted for.
I regret very much that we are unable to
give any satisfactory figure as to where the waste
occu.rs.
Very truly yours,
(Signed) E. A. FISHER,
City Engineer.
7C#lfil**e'u'w
~l_Q"~••
Q.~~~..
= em 111 mrr ,- iIIUlJlllUll1J iil ---~--_._.--
1l.~t~~~.~~;L~;J,~;i~,~£t1~:ki::;~:~t~:1:~;::;~t~;L!;{,~,~
;:':,ij,:_:".;,.: ..•~•.... _"," , ,':
,, .
COpY.
Memphis Artesian Water Department,
Memphis, Tenn., May 7, 1908.
Deal~ Slr:Your letter of April 30th, addressed to the
City Engineer, has been referred to us for answer.
Our records have not been kept in such a way
as to show the percentage of decrease in the pumpage according to the installation of meters.
In fact, this
would be a difficult record to definitely work out,
for the reason that neters are installed gradually
and at tIle same time new consumers are being added
daily on the flat rate basis.
The meter is the only effective method of
preventing waste within our knowledge, as it makes the
consumer the inspector, and he will accordingly watch
his water in the same manner as he would his coal pile
or flour barrel.
This does not mean that he would
use less water than sufficient for sanitary purposes,
any more than it would mean he would fail to build a
fire or ent less for economy.
On the other hand, it
1s a principle recognized by all right thinking people
that mater1~1 fUrnished should be paid for at equitable
rates.
In 1903 When the City bought the Water Works
the consumption With about 12,000 customers, 1500 of
l48~
which were metered, was an average of slightly more
than 13,000,000
gallons.
The Commission appointed
at that time was soon educated to the fact that a
large percentage of water pumped was wasted, and they
placed within eighteen months about 1500
accordingly
meters.
The meters, and the moral. effect, together
With the fear that those found wasting would be next
metered, caused the consumption to decrease to about
11,000,000
gallons, Which meant 2,000,000 less in 1905
than in 1903.
About that time it was decided to dis-
continue metering for a vmile, and gradually the consmnption increased, until in 1907 it had again reached
15,000,000
gallons.
Recently the propriety ~f add-
ing meters has been again discussed,
and in fact,
during the last year something like 1,000 have been
.installed, with the result that during the last few
months we have pumped 1,000,000
gallons less than dur-
ing the corresponding months of a year previous, notWithstanding
an increase of 1,000 ~aps.
Our taps now number 16,000.
last month was 11,000,000,
The consumption
which is nearly 2,000,000
gallons .less tr~n the average for 1903 with an increase
of 4,000 taps, and total nwnber of meters noVi in use
about 4,000.
These figures are given as general results
Which may enable you to arrive at the information you
seek.
We have experimented fait~~ullY with the
house to house inspection for waste and leaks, but
find that oft repeated visits are objected to, and
the results are qUite unsatisfactory
for the reason
that the benefit derived is temporary.
Yours truJ.y,
(Signed) LA~{CE
SI~~SON.
Gen. Supt.
COpy.
City of Baltimore,
Water Department.
:May 2nd, 1908.
Dear Slr:Yours of the 30th instant, on the sUbject
of water w8.ste and 1ts prevention, is at hand.
In this city we have never made any systematic survey to determine the amount of water wasted or
how it is wasted.
There is no evidence that there is
any excessive usa of water here.
The total consumption
in this city amounts to about 120 gallons per capita
a day.
Of this quantity a large percentage, between
one third and one fourth, 1s used for flushing mains,
washing down streets and gutters, and flushing out
sewers, and water is used for these purposes very liberally, because we have more water than we can consume
and it costs no more to make liberal use of it here for
p~bllc purposes than to waste it at the impounding
reservoirs over the dams or through drain gates.
Meter measurement
of the consumption in
hundreds of dwelling houses 1n this city shows an
average daily per capita consumption of about only 35
gallons, Which we do not regard as indicating any excessive waste of water.
We have le~{s from mains in
streets, of course, but the s011 hare is such that the
leaks appear on the surface and are promptly located am
stopped.
There are many miles of old 2-inch, 3-inch,
and 4-inch pipe, laid years ago, and much old pipe of
this kind has been cut out of service.
We believe
it is much more economical and effective to eliminate
leakage by cutting all this old pipe out of service
than it would be to make systematic surveys of the
city to locate waste from leaks.
Yours truly,
(Signed) ALFRED M. QUICK,
Water Engineer.
COpy.
Department of Public Works,
Chicago.
Bureau of Engineering.
May 6th, 1908.
Dear S1r:I beg to reply to yours of May 4th as follows:
1.
Consumption of water.
(a)
204 gallons per capita, based on pump record-
er l og1fltration and 1907 population.
(b) Being compiled.
(e) Being compiled.
t
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Small.
Being compiled.
Pitometer surveys.
By house to bouse inspections.
Water taken from Lake Michigan. Method of recording - by pu~p register and few large meters.
Yes. - Figures being compiled.
I am enclosing you a print showing pump-
age from eight large pumping stations.
there are two s~aller pumping stations.
Besides these
A little
study of this will shoW you the magnitude of our
problem from your standpoint.
Regretting that I cannot answer some of
you~ questions more definitely, I am
Yours truly,
(Signed) T. C. PHILLIPS,
Engineer, Water Surveys.
317 City Hall.
COpy.
Department of Public Works,
George R. stearns,
Director.
BUREAU
OF WATER.
790 City Hall, Broad and Market
streets,
Philadelphia,
May 13, 1908.
Dear S1r:Referring to yours of the 30th ult. requesting information relative to the sUbject of "water waste
in cities and means of prevention",
I would
the matter has been one of considerable
state that
concern to the
former and present officials of the Water Department,
and the question of water meters has been discussed pro
and con by the newspapers and the pub11c for the last
decade.
The reason the sUbject has been so much dis-
cussed 1s on account of the high consumption
it being approximately
of water,
200 gallons per capita per day
which indicates that there must be considerable
waste.
There is, however, some doubt as to the accuracy of
this estimate of the consumption which is based on
"plunger displacement"
with an allowance
for slip,
and just whether or not the amount allowed for slip
is as high as 1t should be 1s a question.
In the newer and recently constructed
stations,
the quantity of water pumped is measured by
pitometers
q~tity
pumping
and in the f1ltered water districts the
is measured by floating weirs and it is probable
that the quantity thus measured
1s reasonably
accurate.
In these districts, where there is no question as to the
quantity supplied, we find still a very high consumption.
a
During 1906 and 1907
large corps of in-
spectors were employed in making house to house inspection.
It is extremely difficult to state What
benefit, of any, derived to the city and while no
doubt there is considerable leakage due to defect.ive
house attachments, it was thOUght that .the expense of
detecting the leaks was greater than the cost of the
water thereby saved, and the inspection was discontinued.
Of course the.Bureau maintains a permanent corps of
inspectol?S whose dut¥':it is to see that there is no
flagrrolt abuse by consumers of the water supply.
The City cannot install meters at this time
as Cou-~cils have passed ordinances prohibiting
installation.
further
There are at present about 1726 water
meters in use.
Some reasons may be advanced to account for
the relative high consumption of water in this city.
The city covers a vast area as compared with other large
cities and is very much less congested.
The total length
of water pipe in use at the present time aggregates 1579
miles connecting approximately
15,000 fire hydrants and
about 300,000 house attachments.
a great many small lewm
There are, no dOUbt,
in such a great length of .pipe
Which are not apparent but the total may be considerable.
.•
-, ;-r-
,),)
..
With reference to your question whether
waste 1s mostly due to defects in streets
or within
houses and places of business, it is difficult to
answer.
Our investigations have shown that in the
manufacturing
districts and business sections, the con-
sumption is probably not more than it should be while
in the residential districts, it has been found to be
extremely high per capita.
Very truly yours,
(Signed) FRED C. DUlrLAP,
Chief of Bureau.