EWIRO1ENWIAL ADAPTABILITY
by
Graeme Malcolm Aylward
A.A. Dipl. (Eons) Architectural Association, London
(1964)
SubidLtted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the
Degree of Waster of
City Planning
at the
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
June, 1966
Signature ofAuhr.........................
Department of City and Regional
Planming, MNy 20, 1966
Certified
by.......................
........
-.....
.....
.
Supervisor
Accepted 6...
.............
..
an~.....
Chaira1 Departmntal Comiittee
k' on Graduate Students
ElVIROlMENTAL ADAPTABILITY
by
Graeme Malcolm Aylward
Submitted to the Department of City and Regional
Planning on May 20, 1966 in partial fulfillment
of the requirement for the degree of Master of
City Planning.
This thesis has two principal objectives. Firstly it attempts to
measure the environment, defined by activity and space, to see how it
changes and how it is formed. The rationale for this search is that
unless we obtain this information we cannot tell where maladjusted
activity and space relationships exist, and if this is not understood
we cannot apply solutions. I am concerned here not only with the
adaptability of individual activity solutions but also, through sample
activities, the interrelationships of different activity and space
requirements. The second objective is to expand design concepts,
both for activity and space, that could be used to deal with
problems raised by the first objective.
These two aims, drawn together by some examples, are intended to
form a constructive method for approaching the nebulous problem of
adaptability. The study is mostly speculative. However, it is also
intended to serve as a tangible introduction to this increasingly
important issue. While extensive research remains to be done it is
hoped that the thesis can provide a base from which more specific and
detailed work can be constructed. Proposals are made to this end.
Thesis Advisor:
Kevin Lynch
Professor of City and Regional Planning
-- -
! MERM-
1--
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ITROCTION..........................
. ...
................
7
PART I
CHANGE.............................1
1.
The Behavior of Activity under Change............
13
2.
The Behavior of Space under Change...............
19
26
THE SHAPE OF THEENVIRO10ENT..............................
1.
Typical Activity Requirements that Shape Space...
26
2. Typical Space Requirements that Shape Activity...
29
3. The Pit of Activity and Space....................
32
PART II
IESIGN CONCEPS POR AAPTABILITY......... ***..*..*....
39
1. Adaptability of Space.... .......................
40
2.
49
Adaptability of Activity.........................
Part III
EVAWATION AND PRELIMINARY
.
...........................
56
APPENDICES.....................................................**O
F00TOTE..........................................73
BIB~o0APH.......................................76
(6
LIST OF FIGURES
1.
Behavior of Activity and Space under Change.............. 24
2. Important Activity Characteristics that Shape
Space - by Activity Type............................... 28
3.
The Permissiveness and Resistance of Space
Qualities to Activity
4.
Danands........................,.
31
Differences between Activities by Space
Shaping
Characteristics................................
34
For P. L.
INRODUCION
INTRODUCTION
For those who create the shape of the environment one of
the key words in flexibility.
It is a magic word that is used
unsparingly, often just by its very use it endows the space with its
meaning.
Most structures erected today are unfortunately just as in-
flexible as the old ones and cannot be altered to keep with future
advances .
What we build today will again be obsolete tomorrow -- and
this is at a time when the rate of obsolescence is increasing.
If
we are to avoid paying the price of permanence in the future,
important changes will have to be made in our basic approach to the
structure of the environment.
In spite of the lack of knowledge,
realized and unrealized, as to how adaptability and flexibility
might be achieved, there is no doubt that its importance is accepted
and its fulfillment demanded.
It is all the more surprising therefore,
that so little thought has been given to the problem.
At a general
level, Mumford has made the point that permanence in our structures
impairs physical freedom, "the environment) should be ready to meet
new conditions ...
new processes ...
be self-renewing."1
Historically, space has been remarkably resilient to change,
over the years activity patterns and requirements have altered and
been met, costs of all kinds have been amortized over many years.
Com-
pared to today the scale of the problem was small and I suggest that
today's problems are small when compared to those of the future.
Not
only will changes occur more rapidly through technical and social
revolution, but they will operate on a larger scale, and furthermore
be of a type that is more radical.
This increasing rate and magni-
tude of change can have two principal results significant to the
need for an adaptable environment.
One is that individual activi-
ties need to be able to minimize the stress and costs of alteration
and adjustment to new operations and requirements.
And second,
because of various technological innovations, activities will have
an increasingly greater freedom to locate independently of functional/
geographic ties.
Using alternative (and maybe changeable) location
criteria there is an increased chance that more 'footloose' activity
will bring greater demnds on space; this is because one space may
have to serve alternative uses in its lifetime.
Definitions and Intent
The environment is defined as the resultant interaction
of activity and space, these parts have already been mentioned and will
recur frequently below.
Adaptability is defined as the ability of the
environment to adjust to one, many or continuous changes wrought by
the demands of activity and space.
It is important to note that
economic, social, psychological and political constraints on
adaptability have been omitted.
This is not to say that they are not
important, however, in the interests of simplicity and manageability,
it is beyond the scope of this thesis.
When I first began to try to find ways of achieving
adaptability, I bec ame aware of the fact that there is no method
available to evaluate the environment, an essential key to utilizing
adaptability concepts.
These concepts are presumably intended to
find a solution -- but to what?
In Part I below I will be examining:
(1) how activity and space change; (2) how they bring demands on
one another, and from this; (3) how they suit and conflict with one
another's needs.
It is then hoped that I can be in a position to
answer this question.
The objective is to seek a definitive method of evaluation
for adaptability problems but not to produce detailed specifications
or answers.
At the same time, I want to expand my initial approach
of developing ways of achieving environmental adaptability.
It
is to this end that in Part II I explore a number of adaptability
concepts which, though they cannot be tested fully with Part I, can
be augmented and explained by observations drawn from the first
section, plus examples shown in the outline testing and evaluation
contained in Part III.
The last section of Part III contains an
addendum which revalues some approaches to the study and proposes
future research. This thesis is more speculative than practical, yet
I hope it goes some way to making the usually nebulous subject of
environmental adaptability more tangible and manageable for planners.
PART I
A,
CHARMG
B. TIM1 SHIAPE OF THE ENVIRMNWI?
CHANGE
In this section I will be trying to obtain some definitive
idea of the scope of the problem to which adaptability must be
applied; this will be considerably helped if the principal behavior
patterns of activity and space under change can be more clearly specified.
The first task is to select for examination certain activities
which, together with their concomitant spaces, will present a wide, if
incomplete, range of these behavior types.
It should be emphasized
that this list will only contain representative examples.
They are as follows:
a.
Large Unit Retail - mostly of the departmental type,
these stores range in size from neighborhood
supermarkets through to regional shopping centers
b.
Small Unit Offices - mostly specialist operations,
activities such as business and professional
services
c.
Large Unit Offices - this would principally comprise
large administrative activity
d.
Universities - though a very complex and diverse
activity it is considered here because of its
multi-activity operation
e. Nospitals - a variation of the multi-activity
situation.
The second task is to state more clearly what is meant by
'change.'
Often change is discussed only in terms of expansion or
internal adjustment, we will certainly still keep these categories but
add to them the problems encompassed by contraction.
three change categories there are subgroups.
Under each of the
These will be outlined
below, preceding the examination of the activities in order to aid
comprehension -- though they were in fact derived from this examination.
a.
Expansion
(1) Increase in the intensity of space use by activity
(2) Addition based on the adjacent location of functional units,
or departments of activity
(3) Accretion, numerous small additions over time
(4) Addition of space through adjacent new physical structural units
(5) The complete movement of an activity to a new location
(6) The movement to a new location of only parts of the activity
b.
Contraction
(1) Reduction in the intensity of space use by activity
(2) Reduction of space use by functional, or department units of
activity
(3) Physical contraction by removing space, either by increments
or by larger structural units
(4) Keeping unused, 'dead'
space that is maintained but not needed
(5) Am1ler space needs obtained for the whole activity in a
completely new location
c.
Internal Change
(1) Change solely instigated by administrative policy experiment
(2) Superficial internal adjustment to temporary demands
(3) Moderate adjustment of operation to new activity patterns
c. Internal Change (continued)
(4) Wide reorganization of operation to new activity patterns
(5) Changes in terms of physical requirements as a result of new
operational techniques.
Ideally, the ensuing discussion would be neatly constructed
around a number of references to the behavior of the environment under
change; unfortunately the dearth of information sources makes this
impossible.
This is a strange situation; psychologists, sociologists
and economists have all contributed to the knowledge of change in
the environment, but designers have virtually ignored it.
observation is,
This
of course, qualified by the limits of my search;
however, the examination below should be considered in this light.
Disagreements are bound to appear to anyone with a detailed knowledge
on a particular activity type, but in terms of broad issues I hope
this does not interfere with the general problems of change behavior
and the resultant types of change characteristics.
With the two above sets of definitions (space types and
change characteristics) I will now examine the behavior of 'activity'
and then 'space'
analyzed.
under change in an effort to clarify what is being
Note that this section is not concerned with design
solutions for the problems it raises.
1.
The Behavior of Activity under Chan
a.
e Unit Retail - the dependence of this activity on
consumer preferences creates a strong pressure for adaption to
changing demands.
In a complex activity such as a department store this
is aggravated by the diverse nature of the component functional units,
that is,
time.
each one will vary in its rate of change and importance over
In terms of expansion, rapid change is often absorbed by
increasing the intensity of activity operation rather than committing
space resource that may prove to be necessary should the change be
temporary.
If the growth is large and more permanent then expan-
sion will likely take place in whole functional units such as
deaprtments -- though the new space is not confined permanently to
this new unit.
Conversely, small contraction often reduces the
intensity of use rather than abandoning the space, if these units
of space are abandoned at some critical point of widespread contraction,
the displaced activity will be absorbed into the remaining area of
reduced intensity.
Constant internal adjustment is mostly 'cosmetic'
and superficial, taking place within the functional units.
is can also be at a scale that rearranges these units.
result is a need for considerable internal flexibility.
But
The net
Relationships
between departments are highly interdependent and organized in sequence
and size, this network of ties makes any division of the whole, or
even major sub-units activity, very difficult.
There are some more
permanent sub-units, for example administration, but a large part
of this is also integrated with the dispersed network in order that
it my control the operation of this complex activity -- telecommunications play a significant role here.
Other more stable units
are of the service type and less dependent on 'fashionv'
for example,
car parking and storage.
Experiment, efficiency and a changing market all play a
part in modifying this activity, we may also expect technological
developments to have a major effect on its operation.
ment has been the automobile, an
Such a develop
example for the future could be
a reduced personal participation in buying - remote self-service
and stardardization of goods are only two exazples of developments that
might bring about this state.
b.
Small Unit Offices - one of the most important aspects of
this activity is its mobility, it pervades nearly all of the types
of units that comprise this group.
Large expansion means moving to a
new location, though for reasons of maintaining face-to-face
contacts, available workforce, etc., it seldom moves too far away,
and often it is only to another part of the same building that
contains groups of this activity type.
Intensified use of space
would operate before physical expansion until it reaches a critical
point where activity operation is hampered.
Contraction can be
simply explained as de-intensification with the eventual movement
to an alternative location -- but if contraction is a result of
innovation or efficiency (no loss of income) the likely-hood of movement
to an alternative location is reduced.
Administration policy changes and experiments bring about
changes in internal organization, occuring frequently in a
competitive situation; added to this is the 'spawning ground' role
needed for experimental, new activities.
Operational changes
within the activity that are imposed by market changes rather than
chosen are unusual and limited to a small group of more retail
oriented office activities.
When they do occur they could bring about
internal reorganization to the point of needing a new location to
meet these new space demands.
If movement should be difficult it is
more likely that the activity will be changed to suit the space.
16
c.
Unit Offices
ae
-
the more intense use of space as a
prelude to physical expansion is particularly important here because
the size of the activity permits a large amount of growth in this
way because not all sub-units are likely to become more intense at
the same time.
If,
in addition, the parts of the activity are
able to adjust to an optimal use of space this intensification becomes
all the more effective.
An intense use of space would also be
encouraged as the costs of physical expansion in the premium areas,
where this activity is often found, are high.
Large growth can be
accommodated by moving the complete activity, or a geographical
split of functional units may occur providing that communication is
good.
Contraction can be catered for by reversing the intensification
process, though if financial constraints caused the contraction
the limit of absorbtion is far less.
It is seldom that new activity can be simply added to the
old, it is more likely that a ripple of changed contacts, procedures
and locations will occur, and that a period of reorganization will
be needed.
Strong administrative control over large areas is a
great help to making activity more adaptable.
This is one reason
for the tendency to free office space of divisions to assist this
control (e.g. Burolandschaft ), through the flexible location of
activity units for optimal layouts and administration experiment.
Technological innovation is appearing as a major source of
modification to office activity, mostly this is in the form of data
processing to replace routing work, but it can be expected to expand
its scope in the future and be an aid to the 'decision makers' and
thus further improve efficiency.
This change-over may also affect
locational ties either by separated computor/manpower facilities or
even a simple freeing of the interdependence between unit parts of
office activity.
d.
Universities - a comon form of expansion is by functional
units of activity, in addition there is accretion in the form of
constant space 'trade-offs'
and reshuffling between smaller contracting
and expanding departments.
The latter type of growth is difficult
to achieve, but is made more feasible by strong, centralized control
and administration, especially in poorly flexible designs.
Another
common type of growth is the intensified use of space before physical
expansion, exceptions are the provisions for major new units of equipment that take up and exceed the atailable 'slack' in space.
A complex and important aspect of university organization
is the particularly strong and constant network of interdepartment
connecting activity patterns.
Ideally the location of departments
would be based on an optimum arrangement that should facilitate
interaction while reducing any excessive, ti
The amount of operational inter
consuming connections.
dence between major sub-unit
activities is small when compared say to hospitals, theoretically
therefore, if all primary connections are good, the internal growth
of departments is able to take place more independently without
relationships being strained.
This is providing that ties to comon
activities such as service and administration can be maintained.
Contraction has already been briefly mentioned, overall contraction
of the university is very unlikely while locally it can be absorbed by
a reduced intensity of operation and eventual displacement by other
units.
Internal changes of departments are often instigated by
experiments in activity functions, plus the changing web of contacts
between individuals, thus laying different intellectual and
operational emphases with within and across department boundaries
over time.
Another important pressure for internal change comes from
technological developments, not only has this affected the operation
of specific sub-activities, but recently major changes have been
wrought in the principal activity patterns.
The importance of proximity
can be reduced by telecoanmmications, for example, to the 'hardware'
of computors, and the wider use of closed circuit television.
The
repercussions of these developments are difficult to discern, though
I can say two things with some safety:
one, this type of innovation
is in its infancy; and two, changes in connecting networks are
facilitated.
e.
gospitals 3
-
the broad scope of this activity means that
some sub-activities have already been covered, for example, offices.
These will be omitted below unless particularly relevant.
It is not sufficient to consider individual department
expansion, for those departments planned for may not be so critical
in future developments (or at least not the only ones).
This factor,
together with the close operational ties between sub-units, means
that unless these sections can reorganize their relationships to
each other as well as expand, unforeseen pressures of operation
will be generated.
Not only is the juxtaposition of parts and
change unknown, but also the varying rates at which they can and will
occur.
Growth can take place in functional units or sub-units, and
by intensified use of space.
Expansion in a congested environment
often means locating the more autonomous units at more distant
What helps to obviate chaos are the resistance, delay
locations.
and administration mechanisms, both intentional and unintentional,
that prevent unnecessary change -- the more structured of these help
provide a more organized fit into the complex for new and changing
activities .
Contraction involves a 'stop-gap'
reduction in inten-
sity until a new activity can be found for the available space.
Development and innovation are crucial and vital elements in
hospitals, consequently this pressure for internal change is not
always a smooth progression, radical change can, and often does,
happen very quickly -- new equipment, techniques, processes, etc.
Fnctional areas often need to be absorbed, extended and contracted
quite suddenly.
These developments
are not always instigated on
operational grounds, a significant part is also played by administration through policy directives.
2.
The Behavior of Space Under Change
(a)
Large Unit Retail - the expansion of old large units in
central areas is frustrated by the existing fabric of the city, to
overcome this and improve vehicle access, the move has been by many
to areas where cheaper land may be obtained over and above initial
needs.
Here the space can expand more freely, typically by large
structural units, for reasons of standardization, economy, and the
need for uninterrupted space.
Expansion by accretion is unlikely
not only for cost reasons but because small scale space divisions
would be too specialized.
Contraction of space on a large scale is
likely to mean that the location is not comercially successful and
a new one will be sought.
However, on a small scale it
take place by carrying 'dead'
can either
unused space or by the removal of it.
If this reduction is likely to be only temporary the space will
probably be carried as unused, especially where the cost of this
space is low (though lower quality structures on cheaper land).
Except
for prestige buildings the structures have a short life potential,
thus theoretically being able to change not only by expansion but
in the longer run by replacement,
b.
Small Unit Offices - expansion in any compacted location is
difficult as the unit is strictly confined by the similar units
that surround it and is only possible through the happy coincidence
of adjacent area contraction.
Consequently, this expansion is most
likely to take the form of obtaining new, more suitable space.
Similarly, new space is sought if activity contraction occurs;
however, this is less likely if the contraction is as a result of
efficiency.
Freer internal space sometimes operates in new
structures, in the same way as the large office units, but this
operation is confounded on a large scale by the smallness of the
units and the need for substantial unit divisions.
It is important
to note that the increasing freedom of location given to this activity
by telecommnications is significant when one is considering its
ability to adapt its space to new pressures.
In the long term
the compactness with other similar units may be reduced if faceto-face contacts become less relevant.
c.
Large Unit Offices - typically built at high density, and
often surrounded by other high density space, growth is hampered.
Ex pansion takes place either by completely rehousing the activity
in an alternative location, where expansion problems may again
occur, or by rebuilding for only sections of the activity and
relying on comznication links.
Of course, if structural unit
expansion can be achieved in an adjacent area growth will be
easier; also, the problems of"barrier building"' of accretive growth,
even if it were possible at high densities, apply equally well here.
In a similar way that many internal divisions hampered sma1l unit
change so do they for these larger units
A certain degree of
internal flexibility to meet a range of internal reorganizations
is attained by using uninterrupted or adjustable space, but per se
this does not help adaptability; it is only one facet of the solution and even for this to be workable it must be rigorously applied
and consistently designed.
Within this flexibility there are areas
of greater permanence which typically are grouped together, such as
major circulation routes and services.
Physical contraction by
removal of space is virtually unknown though it may be achieved by
renting off space.
More likely is the procedure of de-intensification
of use followed by relocation of the whole unit --
the larger the
space the greater is its potential to withstand a reduction in real
space, as the rejected space is likely to be bigger and thus attract
a wider market of new tenents.
d.
Universities - the addition of new space does not take
place by small scale accretion, and if it
did, it would certainly be
only temporary as it frustrates major growth by its many small
barriers.
New space ideally grows by non-specialized structural
units, for the same reasons as given for "large unit retail" (due to
various political ends this does not always happen, but this cannot
concern us here).
As mentioned under 'activity' above, an optimum
organization of units must be sought in order to reduce the length
of the connecting travel networks.
However, an optimum solution must
take account of future physical expansion, otherwise a stifling,
concentrated development would occur .
Variations in the stability
of space are important to define, for example the main circulation
arteries are unifying stable elements on to which are joined the less
stable work areas.
I have been taking as given, that space is
available for expansion, but this is not always so.
In a congested
urban context severe limitations are sometimes imposed, where
this happens the more self contained sub-activities my reluctantly
be located away from the main body of the university, though as
before, excellent comunication is required.
Internally, specialized space provision increases the
resistance to change, a unique and rigid environment for equipment is
frustrating to new uses when a part or the whole of the equipment
becomes obsolete.
Though perhaps rare in existing universities that
were built on past demands, it must be that in the dynamic university
context where technique and technology are in evolution, provisions
for operational changes must be a dominant consideration.
24
e. Hosptals - many characteristic problems of this activity
are the same as with 'universities' above, that is,
for accretive
growth, for key stable elements of space such as principal circulation networks, and for expansion in congested urban areas.
Much of the recent hospital design has worked on the
principal of expanding in large structural units, and if space is
available this would seem to be a reasonable way of achieving
growth, providing that the new space is neutral and nonspecialized.
The critical question for contraction is not, can the newly unused
space be carried, but rather can local adjustments be made so that
it is easily accessible for some other purpose?
The objection to internal specialized space is also similar
to the previous activity, but heightened by the more frequent
necessity of inserting a new activity and its space needs 'into'
and not 'onto'
the spatial organization.
This pressure to provide
uniform, infinitely adjustable space is eased a little by some more
stable spaces such as kitchens, boilers, mortuaries, etc., but even
these may not always be so 'fixed.'
There is a danger in assuming
a sub-unit to be even relatively static in this context.
Before passing on to the next section I must make a few
brief comments on the above examination.
Figure I.
Firstly let me refer to
This capsules the preceding discussion, and though it
is unrefined it will hopefully serve as a useful reference to this
section later in the thesis.
Summarized here, in addition to the
earlier change behaviors are the principal instigators of change,
namely:
(1)
Pressures from market demands
(2) Technological innovation
(3) Efficiency of operation
(4)
Experimentation by administration as a policy, in
addition to 'external' pressures
(5)
Strong and different individual leadership and
influence over time
(6)
Short life span of space.
Secondly, little has been said concerning the influence of varying
rates and velocities of change6 that no doubt are of significance.
CHA9RACTMR'5S
()F ACATION
-r OC2HANaG
-
k'
.
V
BEHAVIOR
W<FANS1oNA-1
ajkrit .. cnal on tfS.
A
OF ACTIVITY
r~rtef~
nrae
A.
AND SPACE
UNDER
CHANGE.
_[7
aCcr-i-ion
!5
adj act
S
aw
t-rucitxaf >r, I
oenfA-uoittL
r),t
rwvoio ar+
[A
F0I
AnvtryWr.Txv4J
cPEWA'N
KEY:
Afunctiori34_Uririfs
_
sJ ub-clainarli
A. '~
A
A
Pv*o
tac~tkbr'Of whole.
IN-MRAL C+ANGEa.
*dmin. Polic~y c-haracje
fiic!a, adpQmnt*
tilV
] I ~l[
A
A
effic~in
riewac
D EllJ~3
A
!SC -- !Sec-
This was omitted in an attempt to simplify the discussion, plus the
observation that at a general level the comments for every activity
would be very similar; naly
that high, medium and low rates of
change would bring concomitant large, medium and small problems of
operation.
The main problems would occur where a rigid environment is
constructed that must absorb a high rate of change -- a characteristic
that can apply to all activity types.
Thirdly it has not been possible to provide entirely
distinct questions for 'activity' and 'space,'
or for each individual
activity, indeed it would be surprising if one could.
It has been
necessary to repeat observations while trying to point to their unique
interpretation.
Fourthly, what of future problems?
Here the attack has
been mainly based on present day observations but this is not to
say these will be the same in ten, or even five years.
(uite
obviously the future cannot be specified, however, it would be
possible and useful to indicate the direction that change problems
may take.
I think that with the finer definition of change
approached here that this task will be easier -- though postponed
in thi4 thesis with its limited objectives, and time constraints.
Lastly, there is the constant danger of oversimplified
observations. This is mainly the fault of the lack of literature,
mentioned above.
Another mitigating factor for oversimplification is
that the examination was intended to be little more than a detailed
example of the type of questions that should be asked and answered.
But it does serve its intended purposes, to find similarities in
the behavior of activity and space to change, and as a reference for
developing adaptability concepts to respond to these problems.
TEE SHAPE OF THE ENVIRO10ER
As a complement to the analysis of the previous section,
I now want to examine the interactions between activity and space, and
discuss some of the important measureable parameters that produce
the form of the physical environment.
I hope that this section
will help to clarify those major variables, defined by activity and
space, that shape the environment, and that are normally hidden
Later these definitions may give
under capsuled activity headings.
more meaning to the application of adaptability concepts.
Mean-
while the next section will use these measurements to see what can
be said of compatibility between activity shaped spaces.
1.
Typical Activity Requirements that Shape Space
Not all the typical qualities of space that are determined
by activity will have equal relevance to the shape of the space, for
this reason an unranked list is constructed below that selects those
that seem most pertinent.
(Appendix B examines the characteristics
that were abandoned as less relevant).
A.
Minim
Area:
measured in square feet for the whole
activity, including service and secondary space.
B. Room Size Fregecy:
in square feet, it states the size
of room that could satisfy
C. Minimm Pree Height:
75%
of individual room areas.
measured in feet for a single floor
height (note that it excludes services).
D.
Service Area and Volume:
in addition to normal ducted
services, the principal circulation and auxillary spaces are
included.
Shown as percentages of total area and volume.
E.
Wear Index:
rather than omit this quality from considera-
tion for lack of reliable data, a crude measure is established.
High, medium and low rates of wear are used.
(At some future
time the aim should be to establish by activity type, the
wear indices for different material and structures.)
F.
Natural Light:
--
G.
a positive or negative requirement is stipulated
or a combination of the two.
Access:, dominant access modes to the activity discounting
minor variations that result from parochial locational
circumstances.
H.
Proximity to Ground:
stated as a positive or irrelevant need
to be on or near ground level -- alternatively stated, an
essential or irrelevant requirement for activity operation.
I.
Parking:
calculated in square feet of gross floor area of
activity per car.
(Though this measure is not universally
used by activities, it is applied here in order to obtain
compatible results.)
J.
Floor
Loading:
average floor loads -- inevitably generalized
here -- measured in pounds per square foot.
Now, in Figure 2, characteristics will be equated to the
five activity types.
It would be a dangerous assumption to consider
all ten characteristics 'A' to 'J'
(above) to be static.
Hard and
fast predictions of the future are of course impossible; however,
an indication of the direction of change can feasibly be used, though
generalized it
is certainly useful -- no set time period is given
for this future state.
Thus for each of the interstices in the matrix
(Figure 2) there are two results:
one for the present, and one to
FIG.
IMPORTANT
ACTMTY
CH4ARACTERISTICS THAT
SHAPE ScEE
KEY:
fbiography
(x),ource ref-.n.
S. no.iirshen
**
-
tinferination
avalite
but-
+\ire limited
show this direction for the future.
Two further coments should be made on this matrix.
First,
in a situation where a major assumption is being made to complete a
section a brief note of explanation vill appear.
The second comment
follows from the first. In performing this operation various degrees
of conjecture, interpretation and even bias are almost certain to
appear, and although the information can be questioned, the fact is
that it
could be considerably improved with time.
For this thesis
I think that these possible shortcomings do not detract from the
method of examining the interdependence of activity and space.
2.
Typical Space Characteristics that Shape Activity
This sub-section is developed as the complement to the
preceding one:
I will examine the typical permissivities and
resistances of spaces as they affect the demands made by activity.
It is important not to confuse this examination with the 'behavior
of space under change' that was discussed earlier.
Space is
considered here at one point in time, the present.
These space
characteristics are not categorized by the activity they contain,
e.g. office space, nor by superficial structural type, e.g. concrete
frame, but are classified according to broad qulties of space.
There are only three relevant groups of qualities that I could
isolate:
a) the gZon of structural point supports, small span
be considered as less than twenty feet and ar
than twenty but less than, say, one hundred feet.
as
can
as greater
(The definitions
though debatable are only intended to establish a broad clarification
at this stage.)
b) story heit
is the second generalized space
type and can be simply stated as multi- or single story;
c) specializa-
tion of space falls into two categories:
a uniqe structural space
type to suit particular activity demands; and a consistent system
of sizing and spacing to organize the structure and building components
--
modular.
Figure 3 now submits these qualities to the tests outlined
above.
In preference to a long explanation of the somewhat limited
data contained in Figure 3, I will briefly sunnarize below the extent to
which space characteristics permit or resist the application of activity
emands.
The feasibility of meeting ground floor preferences (with
the exception of retail activity), durability, and access mode,
(complicated by multi-story) are mostly irrelevant, that is,
in
terms of the space characteristics confounding what that activity
needs,.
There is perhaps a temptation to select further elements
that deal more specifically with certain activity requirements but
this has been avoided as it would make this section unnecessarily
complicated.
As might be expected the more permissive spaces are
generally of a large span with modular components; while the more
resistant ones are specialized smll span types -- with the exception of small unit activity in a static situation.
Also, except for
new large unit retail, single story structures can meet nearly any
requirement due largely to their more 'neutral' nature, being less
specialized than multi-story.
The latter on the other hand, is
mostly positive towards meeting activity needs, while it
does
complicate access and room heights; mostly it is irrelevant to ground
floor requirements as large unit retail is the only activity that
FIG6.
'L.
L.U.
THE
t4nNp)
"i.OF#IC&
P ~p
,U.OPMCe
N N
Np okW
P
F
tEWtTy tN
H0PTAL N
N P
H P
OF SPACE QUIALTIES TO ACTIVTY
DEMANDS.
NZ
v
zz
PERMISSVENESS
AND RESISTANCE
/Z
KEY:
p ggP
.....-
C V/p
C
---
W
F
pm
poeii4,ve
F*
+mPte t
PF
COrv it on -
Cz= Cormplica tions
w.5P.
1Me.
..
MNN.
Np
P
L
Od.C
P4-PCp P
-f p C1A
Qoe.
PfPcp
7p~P P C~
C
*gOPAtCR
vpcap
.
r
PNppN
t4
C
H r N
p
0
_
C_'
Mc.
JNNN
rN
7'
j
Np
N FIN/
HPV.
p p
z
v--
--
.
N
FP
"Oar
-0vr.T
Lu.
a)iS
retleive .
-swvet.
N PP F
P,_
p
ri appliCation.
P P
N
_N
CC-
N
N'
I
positively reAres this quality of space.
(If all activity needed a
ground floor level, of course, multi-story structures would be
resistant.)
Again as one might expect, there emerge basic differences
in span; small spans generally react negatively to needs while
wide spans are more permissive but at the cost of difficulties with
lighting and floor loading.
It is difficult to be objective here
as to some large extent the results are colored by the existing
situation.
Further resistance to spaces' ability to meet activity
demands comes from the aging of space itself, not covered now; it is
generally a phenomenon independent of activity type though varying
in significance according to maintainance level.
The part played by space in the sbaping of the environment,
if considered on a broader front, would involve studies in humn
behavior, responses, etc.; it must be remmbered that here I am
more concerned with the specific physical pWrt that space plays in
the environment.
To this end there is nothing new or surprising
that emerges from this sub-section; in fact the results are mostly
obvious.
However, it does serve the useful purpose of bring to light
the role played by space independent of activity.
This role is
certainly significant, but on a narrow front, as can be seen by
the smallness of the negative reactions to space qualities.
They
can be made to suit a need; this is a more flexible and less
dominating position than that of activity's space needs.
3.
The Fit of Activit
and Space
The term 'fit' should be explained.
It is the suitability
of space and activity for each other; an example of a good fit is thus
a situation where space fulfills activity's requirements of it.
A
derived term which will be used below is 'inter-fit'; this refers to
the interchangeability between individual fits.
individual fit
For enqWWl,
the
between a university laboratory and research is a good
one, as is the fit between a hospital operating theater and
surgery activities; direct inter-fit is not good, but aspects of
space demnuds have good inter-fit, room size and height for example.
The context of this section has already been briefly
entioned.
It is a stage between the activity and space analysis,
and the application of adaptability concepts; it manipulates the
informnation on the shape of the environmnt in order to find similar
activity/space fits and inter-fits.
The purpose of this is to later
aid the application of adaptability concepts, to see more exactly
where and to what they are being applied.
the activity types in Figure 2 we can determine
how similar they are in terms of the degree to which they share their
space requirements.
Figure 4 is an extrapolation of Figare 2; it
show the broad differences and similarities between activity types.
The detailed quantities can be obtained from the earlier charts;
however, in Figure 4 only tio values are given for degrees of
difference.
the purpose is to find the similar activities (low
difference total) by comparing one activity's fit
of space require-
nests with all other activities and their space reqsirements (i.e.
inter-fit).
It is almt irrelevant here thether those exaPles
chosen do not or would not norally, interchange their spaces.
The
principal concern is to what extent are we now better equipped to
DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN
ACTIVITIES
By SPACE-
SHAPING
CHARACTERIsTics.
KEY:
jow difrne
Ihigh diverame)
low deffevnce)
hig dffrivC&6)
roirm*
'oerA t
c'rh
4h.6e
M OGM TA L
1I low
The ++aI deIf viiCeS
42e
L.I.SP1fa
S. .U.
2
====own___
v
y
eOsI'Ta
IHOGPITAI---.
~~~
04iv-gw
~Ojf
understand the interaction between activity and space?
The usefulness
of grasping this lies in the fact that compatibility between activity
is a step towards understanding their interchange and likely adaptability should the space have to change use, and that conflicts and
coincidences can be measured.
At the present the data is coarse but
would improve substantially with time.
There are other faults, for
example, a small difference that does not get shown on Figure 4 could
in fact be a very important one and therefore upset the figure.
I
justify discarding this problem on the grounds that if such a case
should become apparent, with this approach I can more readily find
this out, and then be better able to rectify the difficulty.
Despite the problems with the method in its present form,
I think that a small example would help to establish my assertions
as to the usefulness of the method -- I am not proposing solutions.
I want to be able to interchange a large unit office with
a part of a university complex (part 'C' Figure 4).
(Please
remember this is not an example of adaptability principals
but merely an examination of the fit in their environmental
components.)
1.
The difference in area size is overcome by moving the
smller to the larger unit, and thus taking only a part
of that larger unit.
2.
Their room size frequency is identical so that if the
divisions are bard and fast there will be quite a good
fit here.
"Quite" because there are reservations, in
that the university section could have experimental
areas that do not fit the norm, and offices often require
large undivided spaces.
'trade-off'
3.
So some adjustment on
is needed here.
Free height is different at the extreme cases but some
overlap occurs.
Do I construct the largest height and
Can I afford it?
adjust to other heights as needed?
Can floors be adjustable?
Do I exclude the extreme
case and design for a medium height?
4.
Service requirements are similar, only more volume in
the form of services between floors is required for
the university.
Again, build for the largest?
Removable services?
5. Durability of materials for the university needs to be
higher than office.
Temporary surfaces?
Dual
purpose surfaces?
6.
Natural light can be substituted for offices but
generally not for the university.
Do I find an optimal
plan form/ external wall ratio for both activities?
Build expensive single story structures with roof
lighting?
7.
(Conflict with service?)
Floor loadings are very similar (for offices with
machines - identical).
Build for the largest load?
Etc.
This, as I said, is a simple example; nevertheless, I think the
method is also simple -- and all the better for it.
usefulness especially
Its long term
ithin a complex activity such as a hospital
with many different parts could be significant (together with the
'direction of change' ideas mentioned earlier).
Two surnary observations on Figure 4 are that, firstly, it
can be clearly seen which are the a3nst universally difficult
space requirements, such as area and parking variations -- indicating
a possible zone for adaptability effort.
And secondly, it is inter-
esting that the difference between present and future requirements
is much smaller than one might expect, though of course the inaccuracies
inherent in the 'direction of change method' (showing greater or
less difference over time) may account for this to a certain
extent.
This section has set up more questions than answers, but
this is its purpose. It tries to establish a framework for
understanding where and how adaptable the environment is, and where
adaptability and flexibility concepts would need to be applied.
is in no way saying that this particular part of the exercise is
couplete; far from it.
But it does provide enough information to
proceed, while it also exposes, I think, the type of format that
could be further exanined and improved upon.
This
PART II
DESIGN CONICEPTS FOR ADAP'TABIL*ITY
IESIGN CONCEPTS FOR ADAPTABILITY
The components to a design solution for environmental
adaptability are now split into two well established groups, nemly
'space'
and 'activity.'
The procedure below wil be to examine
every component in each group as an abstract idea, and then to give
it a context for operating by using outline exampls drawn from
Part I.
That is,
of change and fit
to try and give a context to some of the problems
in activity and space.
Later I will try and
pull together the two parts of this thesis by a snali demonstration
of their application.
The main purpose of this section is to generate these ideas
on adaptability.
An important source for some of these idasa, was
an article by Professor Lynch on 'Environmental Adaptability.'
9
It should be emphasized that discussion on particular concepts does
not mean that the concepts are exclusive to each other, the only
purpose of this separation is to clarify analysis.
concepts would be closely interrelated.
In reality these
As well as generating ideas
for resolving adaptability problems, an additional tool will be
utilized - technological innovations.
(At present, technology is
often introduced to design almost by accident; though little more
than this happens in the examples mentioned below, further study
would treat technology much more as a useful, positive tool integrated into design proposals and future speculation.)
1.
Adaptability of Space
A.
Unspecified Forms
This is one of the most common concepts, having many stages
of specificity.
Of course, an unspecified form is never totally so;
it is often interpreted to mean lack of structure and uninterrupted
space though as we shall see vagueness per se is not a solution.
The intention is to avoid special purpose designs with a low disparity
of space type or high compatability.
The overall form of the
structure may have a neutral, non-permanent physical orientation to
particular axes, etc.; complex and fixed sub-unit relationships
would be avoided.
Polyvalent space is a further extension of this
idea; interchangeable activities operating in the same space over a
period of time.
This period might be short, that is,
a time-shared
space use that provides enough common facilities to meet multiple use
needs; although operations of this type are unlikely between major,
different activity groups, within an activity it would be possible.
The period between changes can also be long and might allow superficial specialization, but this should not be so unique as to binder
an eventual alternate use.
An instance where unspecified space
could be useful is in the notoriously changeable hospital context.
Here with the aid of more universally resistant materials and future
self contained service units it could be possible to change say
laboratory, into administration, into therapy departments.
As we
have seen from Figure 2, in room height variations for example,
space requirements would need to be of more consistant specification.
A note of caution in the design of unspecified forms is their
tendency to become more specified.
Initially neutral designs become
subdivided, the use of them acts as a catalyst, and they thus end by
neglecting the original design.
A strong administration could
overcome this situation, nevertheless, it points to need for
understanding actual as well as intended use.
B.
Growth Forms
This requires that the organization of space should allow
for growth while maintaining continuity of activity in the space.
Leaving open axes for expansion is a principal method of obtaining
this form type.
Perimeter expansion can be coped with in this way.
More difficult is a form to deal with internal growth.
If one
could separate intensive from extensive space use, internal growth
might take place by allowing intensive space to expand into extensive
space, while the latter in turn expands outwards.
An example of
where this could be applied is in alleviating area differences
that are a major stumbling block to easy activity interchange of
space (see Figure 4).
Growing forms can take on smaller units
of activity at the perimeter, or internally in the intensive zone
and adjust the edge of some other use; or large units may be added
in the extensive area.
This development touches on other adaptability
concepts, for example, taking on growth forms vertically (a whole
unexplored dimansion) is covered under 'additive structures' later
on, nevertheless, even in this simple isolated situation the idea is
a useful one.
can be cited --
Examples of its application to individual activities
linear development for the university is such an
idea, it has an expanding main axis, with expanding axes at right
angles to it.
As a general note, these axes and foci of activity
play an important role in not only the physical but visual structure
of the enwironment.
C.
Zoning, and Structural Concentration
Even though under 'A' above a 'fluid' situation was con-
templated there is almst certain to be a need for 'fixed' zones.
The
concern here is how one may juxtapose these fixed and fluid areas to
optimize low interference between the two.
Such a situation exists
where, for example, service cores a concentrated vis a via uninterrupted space.
The principal problem is to accurately select
fixed zones of activity, these difficulties are ameliorated to
some extent if the zones are of a course grain.10
A fine grain
differentiation of zones have a greater propensity to interfere with
each other due to the increased chance of selecting the wrong fixed
and fluid units.
This problem is also coplicated by the fact that
fixed zones often doublt as structural components -- of reduced
importance if these structural concentrations are widely space, because there is less chance of interferring with more fluid activity
operation.
(As we saw, large uninterrupted spaces are a principal method
used to achieve flexibility, reservations as to the effective
operation of activity in this space were mentioned under 'unspecified form'.)
Another example of how fixed and fluid concentrations
might be applied is in the case of car parking.
In Figure 4 we
saw how this was a formidable obstacle to permitting a changing
inter-fit of activity.
If it were concentrated away from the
activity it served, in 'silos' for example, this would comit less
area to interfere with other expansion.
Changing demands could
increase, fluid areas expand, concentrations enlarge without the
conflict of space between large general activity space needs and
large adjacent areas of specific needs, namely parking.
This
type of operation becomes more feasible as the scope and management
of equipment and material improve.
It is a sm1ll example, a
detail of both concept and technology, however, still useful as an
outline explanation.
D.
Over Capacity
The first type of over capacity that comes to mind is the
over-osupply of space to safeguard a good fit between future
demands and resources available, it goes some way to meeting our
needs but there are problems.
It can operate with either undeveloped
or developed space, though to supply the latter is especially
limited by the financial cost involved.
All types of change are
aided; internal change, allowing increased intensity to occur;
expansion,
ithout disrupting adjacent used space; and contraction
if a method is found to withstand the cost of excess, unused space.
now can this cost be reduced?
Here is a major area for research.
New stronger, cheaper materials such as alloys and stero-specific
polymer plasticsll relatively reduced construction costs through
improved logistics and prefabricating, and many other innovations
could bring about at least a small measure of over capacity capability.
But still there is the problem of obtaining enough
strategically located undeveloped growth space.
large institutions
and some retail activities have moved to outlying locations in order
to obtain this precious resource.
Supposing, and it is a large
supposition, that space were available, it is still necessary to
resolve detailed location of unused space with respect to used
developed space.
It is probably not suitable to have just a
perimeter expansion, space for new internal needs without complete
reorganization of activity sub-units my be required.
There is
obviously a limit to the degree to which this type of space may be
physically coped with in two dimensions.
For example, even the vaunted
linear expansion into excess space, if it is to supply internal
growth will, not matter how widely initial growth fingers are,
eventually turn in on itself.
A question to be asked is not only
how much excess space can be provided, but how dispersed can units
be to permit this excess?
is significant.
To this end the role of telecommunications
A second type of over capacity, this time not deal-
ing purely in real area, seeks homeostasis, an equilibrium state
meeting activity needs through a constant adjustment drawn from a
Again
large reserve (over-capacity) of activity requirements.
this is costly.
It could be achieved, at least conceptually, if
every space need was potentially available at every location (services, floor loads, room heights, etc.).
Details of how this
might be beneficial in solving some problems raised by Figure 4
are obvious I think; a large number of activity differences could
be overcome applying numerous and feasible technological innovations.
a homeostatic environment would be intriguing to design.
E.
Temporary Structures
The title is to a large extent self explanatory; there is,
however, a major problem to resolve.
Is it the whole structural
unit including all components that is to be temporary, or just some
of the components peculiar to an activity?
Financial cost is again
a major factor (socio-psychological costs excluded).
If it is low
then the unit can afford to be temporary either in terms of its
life span (to the point of failure) or its use span (to the point of
obsolete operation).
This can be thought of as another form of
honeostasis, a constant adjustment of enclosed space performanee with
the minima effort.
An unfortunate trait of temporary structures is that they
become permanent, and often substandard.
Witness the "prefabs,"
houses built in Britain after the war intended for ten years.
still exist!
Many
Perhaps material. could be designed with specific life
spans; even today plastic design may almost be specified to suit
needs
-. "Klenex" structures?
Administrative control over life
span is probably too unreliable but might be attempted.
The applica-
tions of this concept to the adaptable environment are many.
For
enuple: experimental growth and space organization in institutions;
ajor, long term fluctuations in dewand for departments of large
unit retail stores; adjustments to the different room frequency
distributions of various activities.
F.
Mobile Units
Fluctuating and changing patterns of contact and demand are
met here by changing components of the physical environment in preference to bending activity behavior.
moving the 'servant' units.
This change is facilitated by
It is likely to be a cheaper process than
teqMorary1 structures.-
This general statement csn be broken into two broad categories, scale and mobility.
In terms of scale the small units such
as cupboards or equipment, become very important.
A sain reason
for static, perpetuating envinonuents is the cumalative resistance of
many amall units.
A thorough and consistent freeing of these parts
would be a powerful aid to adaptability.
In many cases mare careful
design rather than broad technological innovations could achieve this
mobility, though innovations of self-contained services (heat, water,
gas, air conditioning, electricity, waste, etc.) would help considerably.
On a larger scale, mobile, self contained structures can be
of the space enclosing variety such as Buckminster Fuller's collapsible geodesic frames.
type.
Or, be of the large structural component
For example, circulation concentrations are an integral part
of the building, mostly they are vertical -- elevators -- but they
could also be horizontal -- travelators.
Now, if these large units
were mobile to be "plugged in" according to demand an additional
dimension to internal flexibility would be achieved (giving greater
scope to the fixed and fluid areas discussed earlier).
The example
is a little abstract, and expensive under existing situations.
However, it would be of value where, say, different access modes to
a complex were to be emphasised over time, or freeing the range of
space sub-divisions of large areas, so that smaller, self-contained
units could still obtain external access according to changing needs.
The second category of mobile units is their degree of
mobility.
This would range from units that were simply removable and
portable through to self-powered types such as the "university on
wheels" (as used recently at one of the University of California
campuses).
Note that because a unit is mobile it is not precluded from
being in one location for a long period of time.
G. Additive Structures
Typical.ly, these structures are based on some form of
consistant module coordination of sizes to facilitate mass production
and a freedom to locate new parts.
larger structural entities.
The units can be sml
panels or
Ideally they would be subtractive as well
as additive, for as we have seen, contraction as well as expansion
present formidable problems.
It is nearly always implicit that additive structures are
located in perimeter zones, in fact this is not sufficient.
Peri-
meter additions can create internal stresses, or expanding zones
may not be conveniently located at the edge.
of vertical addition should be considered.
For this reason some form
If it were possible to
continually tailor centers of intensity to suit demands not only
would activity/space fits improve, but they would be more efficient.
Inter-fit would also improve if space were adjustable three dimensionally.
Two developments of this concept have appeared in
recent years.
One is the "Plug-in City" in which extra space is
attached to the point where it is needed, it being attached to
some permanent structural elements thus achieving vertical addition
in the difficult high density context.
Another explorative develop-
ment of additive structures is to create a neutral, three-dimensional
framework within which module parts can grow, contract and interchange.
Possibilities here perhaps of creating concentrations
of large unit activities still separated vertically if need be,
and each able to adjust its height without interference to the other.
H.
Variety
The theory is that if space needs can be met by a number of
alternative structural types, then if those needs change there is a
good chance that at least one of the structural systems will meet
these new needs.
This analogy with biological survival systems is
false in as much as after the change the suitable system does not
multiply itself, but only meets a percentage of the activity's
Another problem is that the variety must be maintained.
space needs.
So this means that some activities and space have long periods of
misfit.
It is very probable therefore that a structural variety is
unlikely.
But perhaps a variety of small components is feasible,
more than one modular system that can, in a coarse grain, fit a
larger module.
For example, a component system to meet the indivi-
dual requirements of small unit offices or university departments
that could, as completed units, respectively f it the bigger scale
modules of large unit offices and university complexes.
Thus
individual needs could be met in variety without disrupting total
organizations, and the adaptability of parts is assured as at a
coarse grain they are no longer unique.
Variety per se does not
appear to be much use, but a compromise, between supplying the many
'fail-safe'
specialists needs and a universal interchange, or
modular coordination, does seem feasible.
I. Movement Systems
For nearly any physical organization of activity the circulation system is the backbone.
If this central core facility operates
smoothly and easily, then many internal rearrangements can be
obviated.
The location of the major routes would be of the utmost
importance, ideally they would be in some central, neutral location
that did not disturb the spaces it serves (for possible movement of
these arteries see "mobile units" section).
As we saw in Part I,
hospitals rely heavily on a good major circulation system to facilitate its operation. Here the reference to movement is more directed
towards the workings of a particular activity complex, though it
has equal application to the city scale, that is, between complexes.
Of course there are many sizes of movement systems.
A good system
would not only operate well at the primary level but on the tributary
The latter may not be so permanent as this would
systems as well.
make any organization more rigid, however, their orientation and
smooth connection to the primary system would be very important.
2.
Adaptability of Activity
Using the simple idea of considering the environment as
composed of activity and space therecomes to light a whole group of
adaptability concepts.
These form the complement to the adaptability
of space -- the adaptability of activity.
It will not be possible
to engage this section completely, studies on administrative
behavior and organization norms will have to be omitted.
But in a
general way the examples below will illustrate the scope and possibilities of this section.
A. Multi -Prpose
The "Whitehall mandarins" referred to by Sampson,13 who
apply their administrative skill to many different departments over a
period of time are an example of how a nonspecialized group can be
more adaptable.
be utilized.
Multi-purpose groups as well as individuals could
Theoretically each would contain a range of specialist
skills that could, operating together, be permutated to meet any
likely problem.
These groups might be set in a sea of general rules
and referral regulations that relieve the remainder of any important
individual decisions, thus effectively concentrating decisions in
the hands of these polyvalent groups.
Any expansion of operations is absorbed, and at some critical
size point another multi-purpose group is added.
Though it is
unlikely to occur in this raw format the principal may well work
within the context of other ideas below.
Its application is less
likely in a very diverse operation such as a university, but could,
and does to a certain extent, work in hospitals or large unit
offices.
B.
nts
In many ways this type of activity organization becomes
static as department definitions and boundaries change.
Assuming for
the moment that this difficulty can be overcome either by definitions
that are somehow constantly adjustable, or by compartments that are
gross enough to have reasonably permanent definitions.
Assuming this,
then we have a situation somewhat equivalant to structures' growth
forms in that each additional unit of activity is assigned awe clearly
to an existing unit; nebulous units and undefined connections are
overcome.
Unlike the structural growth form developed on axes, this
type is more biological in tat
it can grow in all directions along
numerous connecting growth lines.
An example of this operation
exists in large unit retail organizations where well defined departments are adjusted in size, added or subtracted, reshuffled, but
seldom integrated.
This concept might also serve a useful purpose
if expansion of an activity requires some geographic/functional
split to avoid complete activity relocation.
C.
Fixed and Fluid Zones
The idea behind this scheme is yet another attempt to
prevent space becoming too specialized and inflexible, with confusing definitions and overlaps of operation.
In this case, for
example, administrative controls could determine that information
is centralized in a 'fixed' area, while operations using the
information could range over space using any convenient location as
a base.
In this way activity becomes more flexible, able to
adjust to new procedures and practices.
A similar distinction could
be made between central decision makers and their staff; between
patients, and service and supply activities; etc. etc.
The degree to
which an activity operates solely in one of these two categories may
not always be precise or absolutely constant, it may contain small
elements of the alternate zone or even change categories over time.
For example, it has been suggested that certain teaching activities
in universities could utilize television; here is a case of an
activity that was to a certain extent 'fixed' now made more 'fluid.'
However, the problems of definitions are usually not too critical,
the idea is only to move toward this clarification thus aiding the
organization of unit parts, and not to impose it regardless of activity
operation.
D.
Over Capacity
As with its physical counterpart, this idea is expensive.
It can be easily described.
If personnel are underutilized, if more
people are employed than are needed, expansion in activity by intensification can take place by giving staff more work without any fear
of overloading them.
A more obvious use of this concept is in the
application of technological devices to intensify the use of
space, here a relaxation of pressure is absorbed by the machine
instead of people.
What needs to be determined is the 'break-even-
point' where over capacity 'slack' becomes an operating los.
E.
Review and Contingency Procedures.
It has proved nearly impossible to predict activity
requirements, even so, some idea of future requirements would be
One problem with
invaluable to any hopes of providing adaptability.
predictions is that they are a one-time effort that is static if
seldom revalued.
To overcome this one could, for example, organize
a system where departments or functional units within an organization
make monthly reports on space and service needs.
These projections
could range in time scale from one month to two years.
The infor-
mation would be coordinated and policies executed via the constraints
of finance and space.
Built in to this periodic evaluation could
be a detailed inventory of space needs and activity contacts.
A variation of the homeostatic process is contingency
planning.
In this case many alternative plans can be developed
to meet, at least in part, several of the most probable future
situations --
Imited only by the imagination.
A dynamic process
such as this does require a high quality of central control;
already, large organizations are moving in this direction in
maximizing command controls.lO
F.
Skill Distribution
This can be thought of as activity's equivalent to the space
concept of 'additive structures' inasmuch as the organization is
more "modular" and activities more easily attached.
A more even
value of skill distribution is proposed together with limited
numbers of specialists, or groups of specialists in enclave peaks.
This would help the addition and general relocation of activity
because the uneven scatter of specialists would be reduced with
groups more equivalent and self-contained.
A simple example is in
the allocation of computor program specialists.
Dispersed, they
would individually serve their departments; concentrated, they would
generate greater activity movement when consulted.
Addition of
new departments would have their own specialist rather than risk being
located at a distance from the information source.
G.
Comication Substitutes
Telecommunication is a major contributor to adaptability
in many forms.
The separation of activity units by interposing this
medium for physical contact relieves the units from the necessity
of strong proximity requirements.
The separation of units that can result allows changes in
patterns of interaction without corresponding changes in physical
setting.
It is feasible that one location can be as good as another,
providing the quality of communication is constant, as information
availability is equalized.
Intensity of interaction can increase
without overloading space achieved both by people (telephone,
teleprinter, videophone, etc.) and by machine to machine data flows.
Much face-to-face contact still occurs but it is diminishing.
Most
of the large units could not operate without electronic communication,
the large office and hospital for example (in concentrated office
development so many messengers would be required to replace the
telephone that nearly all space would be circulation).15
The size of
a wire compared to a corridor consequently Mkes telecomunications
an important space saver.
Contacts may be stretched apart, held in
reserve or speeded up, and as a result many other adaptability
concepts are facilitated; 'over capacity,' for example (assuming the
land is available).
To sum up, the greater freedom of activity location both
within and between units afforded by these electronic devices is a
powerful tool, especially as communication is almost the principal
occupation of activity.
H.
Efficiency and Skill Adustment
It is true that an activity optimizing the use of its
potential will more clearly understand its operation, will have less
'dead-wood'
in its organization, and consequently will be in a better
position to adapt to internal or external change.
Efficiency not only applies to the use of people, but also
how they operate in their space.
change of adapting to change.
In both respects there lies the
While working for efficient operation,
techniques could be developed for retaining and moulding changed
activity to fit poorly adaptable existing and new space.
This adjust-
ment of activity would also serve as a means to relieve the pressure
of space to change, even if the space is of the more adaptable type.
PART III
EVAWUATION AND PRELIMINARY TEST
CONCLUSION
ADUMNM
EVALUATION AND PRELIMINARY TEST
Throughout the thesis nr
reservations and qualifications
have been made on each of the sections.
The purpose here is not
to repeat these coments but to briefly discuss the effectiveness
of the two major parts of the study.
The first part is the
analysis of the problem, namly where adaptability is frustrated
and what constitutes the physical environment.
The second part
contains the important components of the solution.
I have tried to develop and justify what amounts to a
nmber of check lists to outline the problem that can duplicate as
guides to further research.
and 'space'
Splitting the analysis into 'activity'
enabled a clearer discussion; it was an important first
step that prevented many blurred boundaries of definition in what
was changing the shape of the environment.
As a result it can be
more clearly seen what one needs to change to obtain better fits.
So often adaptability and flexibility are discussed solely in terms
of space and only infer the fact that activity is the dominant
determinant.
True that space characteristics are constraints to
activity operation and that they have their own idiosyncracies,
particularly if one is confronted with an established space context.
But this study does give a more balance d view of the interrelationships between these two components.
I think it clearly shows and
specifies the powerful relevance of activity's demands of space and
consequent demand on adaptability.
Even though this may seem obvious,
it is also obvious that at present much confusion reigns on the
relationships between activity and space.
What of the second part of the study, the components of
the solution?
Even more than in the previous sections specuation
is the backbone of the discussion.
This constitutes a weakness
inasmuch as "pondering a subject in its different aspects and relations"
(to quote Webster's dictionary on "speculation") inevitably mkes it
hard to be objective,
Bearing in mind that a subjective influence is
at work there is still significant value to developing concepts.
This is because they are a basis for further discussion and a
starting point for testing any hypotheses.
The space concepts are the
more tangible aspects oe adaptability and contain many of the normal approaches to the problem.
Often analogous to space, it was also
interesting to speculate on the adaptability of activity, for two
reasons.
One, because in an existing situation this could be the
principal way to obtain environmental adaptability.
And second, more
obviously, because together with the spatial type, the possibility of
achieving adaptability is greatly enhanced.
An important question to be raised is how can one use this
information to design for adaptability?
This my best be described
by showing a prototypical problem to suggest how the coordination of
findings could work.
The procedure that will be used below is simply
a drawing together of the various parts of the thesis -- search for
a particular problem of fit and test the applicability of the
concepts to find a solution.
The organization of the approach is
as follows:
A
To compare the individual space shaping characteristics from
Figures 2 and 4 and evaluate the degree of inter-fit.16
B
Apply the range of adaptability concepts for organizing the
space or the activity and select whatever needed to solve
problems in 'A'.
C
'st to see if there is any conflict in these solutions with
the different activity's behavior under change from Figure 1.
D
Apply a feedck of decisions to see how they affect earlier
ones - this process would be cumlative.
The detail I will use will be an enlargement of a part of the exatple
given at the end o.f Part I, namely, to design a "university"
environment that can most easily absorb the "large unit office;"
obviously this will not use every piece of information in the thesis
but it should serve to tie the various pcets of it together.
Final
qualifications are thiat, one, the reality of the exercise in terms
of the activities used is not the mst important aspect, but rather
to see if the ideas are usable.
Secondly, financial constraints
will not be an unduly limiting factor here.
The example will be
mostly suggestive, and hopefully simple - it is only intended to
lend explanation to the above format.
The example below was selected because of the many ideas that
it touches upon.
It should be remembered that this is a 'first-pass'
that could change later to meet other activity/space characteristics.
Remember, examination is oriented solely towards this characteristic.
Exmle
-
"Room sie Freuency" (for "large unit office" fit with part
"univcrsity")
A. The fit between the two activities is good, but there are
reservations.
There are variations to this size; in the
university context there are likely to be experimental areas
larger than the norm; and in the office there is also often the
need for larger, uninterrupted spaces.
Problem here is how to
meet the size variations and maintain divisions where needed?
B.
To meet the main problem from 'A' (a comn issue of varying room
sizes over time) a number of adaptability concepts can be used.
An unspecified, non-specialized form would suit; however, there are
two conflicts:
on the one hand the structure is likely to
be multi-story to shorten travel distances in the size of the
unit.
This compliestes this concept but does not exclude it in a
less pure form.
On the other hand it conflicts with specialist units
of university activity, unless these functions are no-prmanet.
Internal-mobile units would therefore be of significant use; this
would also help the general flexibility of specialist equipmnt
associated with both activities, that is,
artifacts more readily.
Any zoning or concentrations of structure
or services would be Videl
uninterrupted space.
enable it to move its
spaced for obvious reason of obtaining
Another method that can be used to met unique
space variations could be tempora
zones for say, the experimental
areas, which are demountable and adjustable to new space demands.
(This would have to be coordinated closely with structural zoning.)
How can adaptable activity help?
Efficient organization and control
of operations will certainly aid adjustment to any space that is not
absolutely suitable.
control.
Both activities have the potential for this
Minimizing the number of fixed activities or at least concen-
trating them to leave space free is also a help to allowing more
flexible space use and activity operation.
Any misfits of activity
networks sponsored by space that will not adapt easily will be
relieved by a go.
comonication network as will the use of activity
distributions that have equal value for resolving their own problems,
thus reducing inter-group contact and complications.
C.
From Figure 1 one can observe that the amount of internal change
is comparable between the activities, with the emphasis for the
university being slightly oriented to more frequent minor adjustments;
while both quite strongly experience change from operational reorganization. As this is mostly concerned with adjustment to changing
activity variations there is not much conflict with 'B' above.
Both
activities are confronted with a heavy reliance on build-ups of
activity intensity to meet expansion; in this case over-capacity
of space would be of use to meet this demand, though this type of
adaptability was not of particular help to 'B' above.
In terms of
room size frequency per se there is not much else to say about the
problem of change.
The only 'borderline'
case is the internal
accretive growth by departments that occurs in the university
which would set up minor barriers to office activity, but this problem
is circuvmvented by the solutions under 'B'.
As with space, activity's
problems of change are well met, but can be augmented by coping with
the future by a constant review of needs.
Thus both activity types
might organize their long term fit into space rather than, or in
addition to, having an absolutely flexible plan which is constantly
adjustable.
D.
Normally in this section one would determine the ramifications
of the above decisions on other decisions made for the remaining
activity/space characteristics. If conflicts in means should occur
61
then adjustment and compromise would begin.
I have preferred to use words in this exmple, in order to
better explain what was occuring, but inevitably this becomes a more
complex task.
In reality this process would also take place by
drawing, and mentaloperations would substitute for many words.
The reason for making this point is that the network of operations
woudl., I think, be easier to use and less complex than is apparent
from the example.
CONCIUSION
Despite many cautionary notes I think a search and fit of the
problems and means presented here can be made, and further, that it
would produce some definitive and useful results.
My reason for stat-
ing this so positively is based on the belief that, firstly, as a
result of the analyzing method the problem of where better fits could
be applied, and the manner in which activities behave under change is
becoming much more comprehendable through isolating some important
adaptive characteristics
And secondly, that the vocabulary of
prototype solutions made available is a real and useful breakdown of
adaptability concepts.
This is to some extent reinformed by the
successful limited testing of fit problems that I undertook both
while examining the concepts, and in the above evaluative example.
In conclusion I must say that this study is only the first step
towards designing an adaptable environment.
(In the Addendum I
suggest some alternative, retrospective proposals.)
I have not dis-
cussed at length the importance of adaptability in terms of minimizing
the stress of change, but have taken it to be understood that it is
a significant and important goal.
Starting with a complex problem
I have tried to pull it apart and look at the pieces.
Next, the
pieces must be put together again, but hopefully we now have the
advantage of being able to arrange and specify them in combinations
to better suit particular situations and design needs.
ADIENDM
General
As one might expect in an abstract, speculative situation,
the point is seldom reached where the modification of ideas begin to
be superfluous.
Certainly this study is far from reaching this point.
In retrospect, there are two principal alternative developments and
refinements that can be made.
1.
The use of activity types such as "hospital," "University," etc.,
Instead of trying to
could be analyzed in a different format.
find activity space and change characteristics of a complex unit
For example, instead
an alternative breakdown could be used.
of using "university," use "teaching," "laboratory," "administration," "plant, " "commal space, " etc.
This would certainly
extend the task, but it would also allow finer definition of fit
areas both between and within activities.
This does not necessarily
mean that one should discard the more general categories, for
they will still be needed to discuss the overall change characteristics of the activity.
2.
An alternative arrangement of the problem could further integrate
parts I and II of the thesis.
That is,
"Space adaptability
concepts" would be discussed by "activity type," evaluating the
extent to which they permit the differences in "activity space
demands" -- this would replace the effect of "space qualities"
on the activity space demands.
concepts
Similarly, "activity adaptability
*ould be discussed by "space qualities" evaluating the
extent to which these qualities aid or hinder different activity
concepts .
There are a number of alternative ways of integrating
various sections by activity and space, for example in the
diagram below,
01
ACTIVITY
PROBTEMS
MSANS
the diagonal
o
SPACE
ACTIVITYSPC
represent the suggestions made inmediately above;
however, the verticals should also be possible.
At present
we have considered only the dotted line relationships.
Further Research
This section would normally appear in the main text of the thesis;
however, it was necessary to be able to examine it in the light of
the above general revision proposals.
There are, as one might expect,
a number of branches and details which research can take.
I present
below, a few of the most important areas.
1.
Together with alternative activity breakdowns, it is important
to expand the space shaping activity characteristics into more
reliable and detailed information.
difficult, but it
is a long job.
I suggest that this is not
The reason for needing this
information is that it is one of the principal statements of the
problem to which concepts will be applied.
2. The activity characteristics that shapre space are for the most
part rather gross.
They could be divided and refined, but still
remaining as common headings serving all activity breakdowns.
For example,
"Service areas and volumes" would be separated, and
further divided by type of service, such as circulation,
ancillary rooms, and mechanical.
3
Again, using a finer breakdown of activity type, one would want to
examine in some detail the behavior of activity and space under
change; this would be both within the activity, and as a conparative exaination.
Approaching this one could use the typical
characteristics I outlined; however, in addition it would be
interesting to expand this list into what might amount to a number
of progressicns or sequences for environment's reaction to change.
4.
The senescence of space would have particular bearing in the long
term use of space types and activity growth and change rates.
One
source is the U. S. Treasury Department which has published some
depreciation rules for property by activity type.
However, this
may be of limited value as it becomes confused with functional
obsolescence -- activity, not space behavior.
Other studies on
space should include inventories and examinations of existing
available space types, their life span, rigidity, etc., plus important areas of research into rates and velocities of space type
changes, as well as rates for activity types.
5. The inportant role of technological innovation has been mentioned
before.
Here I strongly reiterate that this aspect of future
development is by no means integrated enough with design proposals.
Often it is used as a 'gimmick' to solve a superficial problem,
whereas it is in fact a fundamental tool to assist design,
especially that of an adaptable nature.
One would look for
innovations in such things as materials, construction and
structural techniques, communication and movement systems,
environmental control, specialist equipment for individual
activity, etc.
6.
Environmental adaptability relating to activity and space must
eventually be incorporated into other complementary areas of
interest.
Social adjustment to change, the psychological impact
of space and activity systems on the individual's ability to
accept change are but two examples of where research into adaptability will touch and run parallel to many adjacent interests.
Others would include, for example, the non-physical (i.e.visual)
structuring of the environment through periods of change.
f.
There really is no last point to make because the area of
research is continually expanding.
This outline list, after a
very short while, will expand even more.
However, an important
aspect of any of the above research is to be sure and relegate all
that is non-relevant and if possible establish priority systems
to certain situations (though they have a propensity to be
static).
This may seem obvious but it is very easy in this type
of study to reach a state of advancement that supercedes earlier
work -- constant review is required.
Only with the detailed
experience and extensive research time spent working with the
concepts and problems outlined in this thesis can we establish
what is particularly relevant.
with any confidence at present.
I am in no position to do so
APPENDICES
68
Appendix A
For general interest and reference a further indication of activity
characteristics under change is presented.
An expansion of Figure I,
this includes activity types not covered in detail in the nain text.
ENTA'N
IACTIVITY
CHARACTE01STICS
I-
e or,-
APPENDIX A
15EHAVIOR
OF ACTIVITY
AND GPACE
UNDER
reoakm x
A
G
Mwevi
lw*c^ Ofct(w* un4Crwadcft((i+( cill,
&dw~In. ft;4(C..y ohsra
A
A
FA1-IL
19
A IS
__
__
__V_
r cXiz14RW~leu/ c
wJ
C*IAt-J e0
A
ctviu .wyo
c fer+
f7
fv I>-doc* rr
At-
Apedx B
Presented below is a list of the space shaping activity characteristics that appeared to be less relevant to space design or too complex
to handle now.
Another reason for their exclusion from the main
text is that the reduction in the number of qualities is a step
towards making the information more mnageable.
A.
Intensity of Use
-
They are as follows:
Human - measured in square feet of net floor
space per person.
B. Intensity of Use - Machine - (including non-productive equipment)
measured as a percentage of machine area to total gross floor area.
C.
Internal Stability - a measure of the frequency with which internal
rearrangement takes place.
(Need to define the scales of rearrange-
ment for activity types, i.e. complete reorganization or minor
adjustment; and the frequency, i.e. once a year or once a week.
Though the results may only be general, they might still be
relevant if activities interchange.)
D. Uncommnn Height - size in feet of any common space height at
variance with the norm, even though it might be a sma3l part of
the whole (e.g., special laboratories, entrance, lobbies, etc.)
E. Typical Density - measured as a plot ratio; though site locations
govern this characteristic to some extent, it could be thought
of here more as a quality derived from activity operation (e.g.
such factors as economic use of site, percentage of non-productive space, etc.).
F.
Enviroment Control level - degree and quality of heat, light,
sound and air required for activity operation.
G. Prestige Space - excess of quality and quatity over functional
requiremnts.
H.
Quality level - cost per square foot of finish; perhaps averaging
quality rather than a detailed breatdown.
I.
Open Space - required open space for activity operation as a
percentage of total needs.
J.
Growth Index - a measure of the rate and velocity of growth.
(e.g. as noted by Peter Cowan in his article, "Growth and Change
in Hospitals").
K.
Marg=
Area - meaared in square feet, it is the mexinm size for
a complete unit of activity type.
It vill be generalized but
perhaps useful as a guide for possible future fit problems.
FOOTNOTES
FOOTNOTES
Harcourt Brace and
1.
L. Mumford, The Culture of Cities (New York:
Co., 1938), p. 440.
2.
"Burolandschaft," Progressive Architecture, September, 1964,
pp. 201-5.
3.
An exception to the lack of information is in this section.
Studies on the growth and change of hospitals have been conducted
by the Joint Unit for Planning Research at London University under
Peter Cowan.
4.
Ibid.
5.
See Appendix A for expanding this Figure to other activities.
6.
P. Cowan and J. Nicholson, "Growth and Change in Hospitals;"
a report from the Joint Unit for Planning Research, University
College, London, p. T1.
T.
Room size frequency is measured here in a more simple form than
that used by Peter Cowan (Peter Cowan, "Studies in the Growth,
Change and Ageing of Buildins," Transactions of the Bartlett
Society, Vol. 1, 1963, p. 58). He uses a longer and more
sophisticated technique of determining room size frequencies
by plotting all room sizes.
8.
(a) Howard, J. T., Lecture Notes Course 4.53, ML.T.,
(derived from informtion on p. 25).
1964
(b) Dober, R. P., Campus Planning, Rienhold Publishing Corp.,
1963, p. 75.
(c) Architects Journal Information Library, London, January 1966.
(Measurements taken. )
(d) Dober,
g. cit.
(Measurements taken.)
(e) P. Cowan, "Studies in the Growth, Change and Ageing of
Buildings," Transactions of the Bartlett Society, Vol. 1,
1963, p. 58.
(f) American Standards Association, Standards.
(g) Architects Journalog.
February, 1964.
cit., A. J. Information Sheet 1233,
FOOTNOTES
(continued)
(h) Ibid.
(Partially derived from.)
(i) Rornbeck, J. S., "Stores and Shopping Centers - An
Architectural Record Book," New York: McGraw Hill Co.
(Measurements taken.)
(J) Architects Journal, op. cit.
(k) Bell, G. H., (ed.), "Hospital and Medical School Design,
Vol. 1, Edinburgh and London: E. & S. Livingston, Ltd.,
1961. (Partially based on.)
(1) J. T. Howard, a.
9.
cit. (Derived from p. 25.)
K. Ignch, "Environmental Adaptability," Journal of the American
Institute of Plannaers., February, 1958.
10.
Grain - the fineness with which two characteristics are intermixed.
11.
R. A. Smith,"Materials and Manufacture,"
~he
world of 1984,
Vol. 2, R. Calder (ed.), Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1965.
12.
G. Natta, "The Ascendency of Giant Molecules, "ibid.
13. A. Sampson, The Anatog of Britain Today. New York:
Row, Inc., 1964, pp. 258, 259.
Harper and
14.
Michael, D. N.,The Next Generation, New York:
Random House, 1965.
15.
Meier, R. L., A Conmmications Theory of Urban G.owth, Cambridge:
M.I.T. Press, 1962.
16.
See page 33 for definition.
17.
U. S. Treasury Department - Internal Revenue, "Depreciation Guide,"
Bulletin No. 32, 1965.
Vintage Books,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cowan, P. and Nicholson, J., "Growth and Change in Hospitals;"
a report from the Joint Unit for Planning Research, University
College, London,
Cowan, P., "Studies in the Growth, Change and Ageing of Buildings,
Transaction of the Bartlett Society, Vol. 1, 1963.
Lynch, K., "Environmental Adaptability," Journal of the American
Institute of Planners, February, 195T.
Meier, R. L., A Com ni cations Theory of Urban Growth. Cambridge:
M.I.T. Press, 1962.
Michael, D. N., The Next Generation, New York: Vintage Books, Random
House, 1965.
Mwford, L., The Culture of Cities, New York:
Co., 1938.
Harcourt Brace and
Natta, G., "The Ascendency of Giant Molecules," The World of 19,
Vol. 2, Calder R. (ed.), Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1965.
"Burolandschaft," Progressive Architecture, September, 1964.
Sampson, A., The Anatom
Inc., 1924.
of Britain Today, New York:
Harper and Row,
Smith, R. A., "Materials and Mnufacture," The World of1
Vol. 2, Calder R. (ed.) Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1965.
U. S. Treasury Department - Internal Revenue, "Depreciation Guide,"
Bulletin No. 32, 1965.