Exploitation or Choice? Exploring the Relative Attractiveness of Employment in the
Maquiladoras
Author(s): John Sargent and Linda Matthews
Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Jan., 1999), pp. 213-227
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25074047
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Exploitation
or Choice?
the Relative
Attractiveness
This
the relative
study investigates
of production
level jobs provided by
firms inMexico's maquiladora
industry.
ABSTRACT.
attractiveness
multinational
take
the
important
tion
of
that workers
position
and often
overlooked
to
controversy
relevant
the
are
themselves
an
source of informa
on
focusing
the
to their
of multinational
responsibilities
companies
in
the
world.
We
conducted
developing
employees
interviews with 59 maquila production
level workers
in the Mexican
cities of Cd. Ju?rez and Chihuahua.
a
Using
attractiveness
relative
framework
that
to other
avail
compared maquila
jobs
employment
able in the local economy, maquila
line and technical
to
workers
questions addressing why they
responded
were working
at a maquila,
their work history, the
jobs compared to both their
the
held
and
prior jobs
jobs
by friends and family, and
to
whether
continue
in the
they planned
working
attractiveness
of maquila
While
maquilas.
the
John Sargent
Linda Matthews
in the Maquiladoras
Employment
We
Exploring
from
responses
workers
maquila
are diverse,
they suggest that maquila
jobs provide
for the economically
attractive employment
disad
in
Mexico.
Northern
vantaged
treatment
debate
has
phers,
the
and
regarding
course
of history,
scholars,
have
held
laymen
varying
what
constitutes
the fair
opinions
and just
Sargent is assistant professor ofManagement
International
University.
at
Business
His
research
Florida
interests
include
and
International
human
of
is a Ph.D. candidate in organizational
behavior and human resourcemanagement at the School
at the University
of Business Administration
of
Linda M. Matthews
Washington. Her primary research interests include task
and individual attributes and their implications on
motivation,
learning,
and
employee
development.
times
the
point of
worker
focus
was
these
issues of low wages,
examples,
long
on
and
conditions
hours,
poor working
imposed
seen as evidence
laborers by power holders were
cen
of exploitation.
More
discussions
recently,
on
worker
have
been
couched
tering
exploitation
in terms of employee
rights and development.
these lines, scholars began
the
Along
debating
role of job design
in "dehumanizing"
for
workers
the sake of efficiency
and profits.
Braverman
for example,
that creating
(1974),
argued
jobs
were
where
the primary
tasks performed
routine
and repetitive was
in itself exploitative.
as "the utiliza
Worker
defined
exploitation,
tion
of
the
labor
of another
power
person
a
or
return"
giving
just
equivalent
is also a major
issue in the
1971)
field of international
business
ethics.
emerging
An area that has generated
contro
considerable
this field
has been
the ethical
versy within
of multinational
firms
to
their
in developing
countries.
Two seminal
employees
works
in the field of international
business
ethics
resource
development and the nature of work in Latin America.
He has conducted extensive fieldwork inMexico focusing
on the maquiladora industry and multinational firms.
central
on the treatment
of peasants
by
In the early industrialization
of the
U.S.
and other western
the focus shifted
nations,
to the treatment of workers
In both
by capitalists.
responsibilities
John D.
feudal
A
constitutes
predominantly
landowners.
(Webster,
philoso
In
exploitation.
without
Over
at work.
of people
over what
been
(Donaldson,
examined
by
this
1989; De
the
1993) have both
dilemmas
posed
and disad
advantages
George,
ethical
complex
issue. While
the
of multinational
firms in the developing
vantages
a concern
world
have been
for at least the last
100 years
rise
the
of
(cf. Wilkins,
1970),
or
"offshore
zones"
sourcing"
"export processing
a different
have brought
twist to the traditional
debate
1999.
Journal of Business Ethics 18: 213-227,
? 1999 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in theNetherlands.
(for
an
overview
of
these
zones,
see
214 John
Grunwald
Tiano,
and Flamm,
In these
1994).
a multinational
and female),
single,
to the
industrialized
young,
back
exported
Multinationals
been
academic
in
operating
the
and popular
criticism
of
target
are
and
then
world.
zones
these
and
firm,
force
work
country
by
(often
often
1985; Wilson
1992;
raw materials
zones,
by
imported
the developing
typically
processed
and Linda Matthews
Sargent
have
in both
the
press.
as
have
been
described
plants
little worker
skill, highly
requiring
repetitive,
at times detrimental
and
being very
simplified,
to worker
health
and
and
(Butler
safety
in maquila
to Mexico
Firms that move
ethical shortcomings.
are no longer
to
strict
the
subjected
relatively
environmental
and workplace
standards
safety
common
has
in the developed
established
regulations
are
often
not
conditions
have
well
and
been
serious
1993).
contribute
may
of employment
quality
For example,
areas,
Unsafe
environmental
1995; Butler
concern
is
to a decrease
in the
significant
the U.S.
and Canada
production
contract
demands
that
possibility
American
by threatening
to Mexico
facilities
are not met.
the
Free Trade
to a further
contribute
Agreement
decrease
in the U.S.,
employment
Michalos
(1995)
argued
that "it is certain
stating
conditions
enormous
the
world.
to obtain
in
labor
to relocate
if their
There
recently
and
that
in
industrial
may be able
management
from organized
concessions
their
they
working
problems
of sources
a number
Another
Teagarden,
Mexico
While
in these
enforced.
reported
by
and Masten,
(cf. Hosmer
maquilas
world.
is also
signed
the
North
(NAFTA) will
in the quality of
Canada,
and Mexico.
the agreement
against
that the maquiladora
to all of Mexico
and create
will
spread
to drag down
the working
pressures
to very
and Americans
conditions
of Canadians
similar levels"
(1995, p. 192).
the
While
maquiladora
on
focuses
maquilas:
duction
above
industry
another
issues
the
regarding
this
paper
significant,
common
criticism
of the
are
worker
Wages
exploitation.
in these firms
level workers
for
pro
are often
earn as a starting wage
very low. Workers
may
In
the equivalent
of only 25 dollars per week.
basic
firms
transfer
addition,
typically
only
a conse
to Mexico.
As
assembly
operations
quence,
many
of the tasks performed
by workers
these
have
Is
the
labeled
in
relationship
employment
a
characteristics,
the employment
as unjust
in maquiladora
firms
relationship
Hosmer
and Masten,
1995;
Fernandez-Kelly,
1983; and Tiano,
1994).
The
called
(also
industry
maquiladora
to
Mexico's
contribution
this
form
of
maquilas),
a
has been
accused
of
number
of
production,
Given
1993).
Teagarden,
of
authors
variety
(cf.
these
Given
that
plants truly exploitative?
as General Motors,
Ford, GE, Johnson
and Johnson,
and a host of other well-known
maquiladora
such firms
U.S.,
and Japanese
European,
maquiladora
have
multinationals
is a non-trivial
this
operations,
As of September,
1995, maquiladora
question.
over
firms
and
620,000
employed
people
an
at
rate
is
(9.3
increasing
employment
explosive
percent
in
the
that some
in a socially
A variety
months
If employment
as the critics
(INEGI,
1995).
as
horrible
truly
appear
are not
world
nine
first
of
in these
1995)
is
firms
it would
contend,
of the best known
firms in the
in the developing
operating
world
manner.
responsible
of frameworks
have
been
developed
and respon
to their
of multinational
companies
in developing
countries.
workers
from
Drawing
the emerging
field
of
international
business
a relative
attrac
in this paper we utilize
ethics,
to help
sibilities
tiveness
determine
the moral
to
framework
evaluate
This
maquila
rights
the
ethics
framework
has
of
two
employment.
First, we believe maquiladora
components.
are
or
whether
employees
capable of determining
are
not they
by their employer.
being
exploited
We
feel that in the debate over the attractiveness
major
of maquila
jobs
actual maquiladora
of
opinions
been
largely
or
This study
overlooked,
distorted,
downplayed.
to present as clearly as possible
the views
attempts
we
of this group.
that
other
believe
Second,
the
attitudes
workers
and
have
in the local labor market
opportunities
provide
a valid measure
to determine
of comparison
the attractiveness
For
of maquila
employment.
if a maquila
example,
and indirect
benefits
maquila
maquila
ethically
job
available
employment
defensible.
job provides
to a worker
more
than
direct
a non
in the local area, then
at
least in a limited sense,
is,
Relative
next
The
section
of
literature
that addresses
the
the appropriate
to
employers
These
ethical
in developing
provide
insight
in judging
the
involved
maquila
employment
a
and provide
linkage
business
ethics
Ethical
standards
Each
ethics
extreme,
Rome"
countries.
an ethical
from
between
literature
the
into
the
quality
of
developing
countries
Determining
what
constitutes
When
cultures
in both
in
behavior
to determine
George
even
to use
in Rome
these;
2) the Righteous
The
Immoralist.
that a U.S.
implies
customs
firm
but
as the Romans
do
American,
"When
De
in evaluating
the
firms. He labels
misguided
approaches
ethical behavior
of multinational
1)When
is ethical
complex.
common,
three
identified
(1993)
what
more
and
3)
in Rome"
should
follow
do;
the Naive
position
the local
and practices
of the country where
they
In
the
this
business.
context,
doing
maquila
standard implies that as long as the maquilas
have
to
benefits
and working
conditions
comparable
are
local firms,
in an ethically
they
operating
In contrast,
defensible
the Righteous
way.
are
American
held
view
holds
to the same
that U.S.
standards
For maquiladoras,
that they should offer
working
conditions
Finally,
the Naive
global
competition
economic
reality.
practices
that
in both
creates
If a U.S.
the U.S.
and Mexico.
is that
position
own
its
ethical
and
firm
ethical
adopted
their
competitive
lose business
and the entire
undermined
If amaquila
followed
would
that the
be
policy
suffer.
a logical
this position,
to maximize
exist
maquilas
they
decide
be
Immoralist
position,
they would
U.S.
could
economy
should
should
that apply
this standard would
the same wages
and
in the U.S.
imply
firms
of conduct
their profits and that
their workers
whatever
they
pay
is appropriate.
p.
17).
The
or
This
problematic.
if
country.
that
implies
the values of
that
that American
correct
morally
multi
even
apartheid
in the host
to assume
Naive
is
is acceptable
few people
agree
to practice
slavery
are common
practices
only
uni
that whatever
for the U.S.
simple arrogance
are the
of acting
missible
of
ways
in a single culture
is often
a firm
into multiple
expands
the industrialized
and developing
the challenge
becomes
worlds,
behavior
and
country
firm. However,
that it is acceptable
for aU.S.
behavior
would
are no
there
American
Righteous
position
U.S.
ethical values are superior
than
other
cultures.
De
writes
George
situations
complex
difficult.
that
The
in
ethical
when
taken to the
approaches,
clear weaknesses.
in
The
"When
these
has
position
implies
versal
ethical
principals
in the host
acceptable
these
study.
for multinationals
of
national
viewpoint
international
the current
and
Jobs 215
ofMaquiladora
a limited
business
are
of what
the question
standards for multinational
follow
standards
dilemmas
reviews
briefly
international
selection
Attractiveness
business"
conducting
Immoralist
view
is
"it
ways
or per
(1993,
is also
that if your
implies
it is acceptable
something,
same
thing.
Clearly,
just
is doing
(for
something
position
is doing
competitor
to do
for you
the
because
somebody
does not
example,
selling illegal drugs to minors),
it ethical for you to do the same thing.
make
Given
the weaknesses
of the three
above
mentioned
both De
positions,
(1993) and
George
frame
alternative
Donaldson
(1989) developed
for determining
is acceptable multi
what
on
national
behavior.
Both
focused
extensively
works
in developing
countries
operating
institutions
background
(typically govern
are weak.
rule setting and oversight
bodies)
multinationals
where
ment
De
focuses
(1993)
norms
George
seven ethical
duties
for multinationals.
firms
at least
workers
writes
least
level
that
difficult.
in devel
authors
the duty
subsistence
wages
to allow workers
standard
sizes
Both
subsistence
termed
ten
(1989) identified
and
the
minimal
rights
have
"American
(1993,
decently"
be just standard,
are both
living
he
for multinationals
Donaldson
oping countries.
fundamental
international
multinational
on what
wages.
state that
to pay their
De George
must
pay at
companies
and enough
above
that
to live
and their families
to
this appears
p. 51). While
a
subsistence
and
decent
wages
inexact
to pinpoint
Donaldson
terms
and
this
using
levels is
wage
appropriate
in contrast,
(1989),
empha
what
constitutes
subsistence
that defining
is "an empirical
wages
low that workers
nutrition
and
are so
Ifwages
question."
and their families
face mal
starvation,
multinational
firms
are
216 John
not meeting
their minimal
duties
Donaldson's
standard
and Linda Matthews
Sargent
to
of the right
subsistence.
If we
use
of minimal
the average maquila
firm clearly meets
its
duties,
moral
fundamental
obligations.
Many
maquila
firms not only pay at least the Mexican
minimum
but offer to their employees
such benefits
wage
as free food
in the company
cafeteria
and free
care
medical
and Von Glinow,
(Teagarden, Butler
on the issue of subsistence wages,
to ignore
tends
the fact
that all
1992). A
however,
focus
developing
for example,
is regarded
as an advanced
levels
high
national
are not
countries
of
by
same. Mexico,
the United
Nations
the
nation
developing
education,
with
industrialization,
in the United
a
States. A U.S.
in an
wage
not be con
that
advanced
nation may
developing
to its development.
in determining
what
these difficulties
for maquiladora
behavior
in
this
firms,
a relative attractiveness
standard
adopt
tributing
Given
is ethical
paper we
to evaluate maquiladora
that the people within
subsistence
employment.
the Mexican
We
or not they
whether
of deciding
Given
the harsh
realities
exploited.
being
maquila
employment.
are
research findings
clouding
in
research
problem
maquila
are
of
in the indus
what
countries,
people
developing
to be an unjust
believe
trialized world
employ
ment
may be judged
favorably
by a
relationship
attractive
worker.
Also,
country
can
a
as
viewed
relative
be
concept.
employment
be
evaluated
should
against other
Maquila
jobs
in
local
labor
the
employment
opportunities
sources
for
on
maquila
and Masten
information
Both
Hosmer
working
and
(1995)
Butler
and Teagarden
cited
(1993), for example,
sources
San
press
Jose Mercury
(e.g.
popular
News
U.S.
and World
when
News,
Report)
and safety conditions
attitudes
reporting worker
in the maquilas. While
these sources are certainly
few academicians
would
argue that these
helpful,
are sufficient
to adequately
inform both
and
community
opinion.
public
Given
of maquila
these characteristics
research,
a study with
we conducted
the goal of examining
the
scientific
the
relative
from
nical
attractiveness
of maquila
employment
the perspective
We
workers.
line and tech
of maquila
our methodology
selected
as directly
as possible
of presenting
with
the goal
of maquila
workers
while
next
scientific
methods.
The
rigorous
developing
1991). A
is that, due to the lack
problem
of relevant academic
studies, researchers
focusing
on the maquilas
have had to turn to popular press
serious
sources
believe
labor market
are capable
and
industry
biases
maquila
conditions.
multi
national
pays
capitalistic
little surprise
second
(Human Development
Report,
Mexicans
20 million
enjoy a living
or above
that of the
roughly
equal to
class
come
as
it should
organization,
that these authors are critical of the
of
(Stoddard, 1991; Pe?a, 1991; Carrillo,
relatively
and
income
middle
A significant
of the litera
problematic.
portion
ture on the industry
is both somewhat
dated and
a Marxist
from
written
(cf.
perspective
Since
1983; Van Waas,
1981).
Fern?ndez-Kelly,
Marxist
scholars are typically
critical of any type
Ideological
a well
recognized
Over
1995).
standard
to other employment
in comparison
opportuni
ties from a workers
there were
perspective. While
some
was
this information
studies,
published
the views
this paper
presents
this research
still using
section of
methodology.
market.
standard
is
attractiveness
the relative
Clearly,
as
to
in
do
the
the
"When
related
Rome,
closely
this ethical
do" ethical approach. While
Roman's
we view
the relative
standard has weaknesses,
framework
attractiveness
helpful
maquila
economic
our own
and
to the debate
addition
NAFTA,
industry,
ties between
the U.S.
conducted
industry
that there was
that examined
prior
an absence
study
as
on the
focusing
increased
and
and Mexico.
Sample
a
In
on
the maquila
to this study, we found
of the literature
review
this
Methodology
articles
of published
of maquila work
the attractiveness
As
part
workers
were
of a larger study, 59 line and technical
in maquiladora
that were
firms
employed
interviewed.
The
characteristics
of the
are
sample
presented
in Cd.
took place
two
maquila
cities
in Table
I. These
and Cd.
Ju?rez
in Northern
Mexico
firms
have
located.
The
interviews
Chihuahua,
where
many
method
primary
Relative
Attractiveness
ofMaquiladora
217
Jobs
TABLE I
of maquila
Characteristics
Line
age
Average
Ju?rez
Chihuahua
Native
of Ju?rez/Chihuahua
If not, years in Ju?rez/Chihuahua
Education
(in years)
Industry
Electronic
Apparel
=
51)
auto.
26
25
38%
41
10
44%
33%
49
10
42%
6.6
13%
8
0
37%
13
7.9
12.2
neighborhoods
were
workers
these
where
known
was
to go to
number
of
large
maquila
to reside.
In these neigh
interviews
a
the first author of this study went
from
borhoods,
to house
to find maquila
house
workers
who
were
to be interviewed.
the
Overall,
willing
were very willing
to talk about their
interviewees
in the maquilas
and did not appear
experiences
to be systematically
information.
distorting
at
different
firms were
30
managers
Maquila
also
interviewed
for
this
study. Managers
were
on why
a number
of questions
focusing
a
to
at
worker
would
choose
work
they thought
a maquila
instead of somewhere
else.
asked
8.5
2
15
8
0
1
13
8
4
1
10
to obtain
7.3
13
Other
utilized
Total
=
59)
(n
24
12
Harness
Other
Technicians
=
(n
S)
workers
(n
% female
Location
of interview
workers
dure
used
Bretz
Gerhart,
two people
9
and her
by Rynes
Gerhart,
1993). This
and
14
(Rynes,
colleagues
and
Bretz,
Rynes
involved
having
procedure
read the interview
transcripts. These
1991;
then
alternative
independently
designed
schemes
for
coding
summarizing
quantitatively
to each interview
the responses
These
question.
people
schemes
were
then
compared
All
developed.
scheme
coding
then coded.
90%
of
resolved
of
the
the
In this
cases;
by another
a consensual
and
the responses were
the raters agreed on
study,
the final
were
10 percent
who
had knowledge
person
study.
Results
Measures
A
a semi-structured
Following
line and technical
workers
interview
were
asked
format,
a series of
the firm they worked
for, the
questions
regarding
attractiveness
tasks they performed,
the relative
resource
of
their
and various
human
jobs,
practices
at their maquila.
The
full interviews
to
from
10
minutes
with
the
90
anywhere
ranged
All 59 production
level
average being 20 minutes.
were
interviews
and
transcribed,
tape-recorded,
into English. A content
of
the
translated
analysis
was then done using a similar proce
interviews
critical
issue in determining
the attractiveness
of maquila work
is to determine
seek
why people
out and accept maquila
employment.
Proponents
are
of the view
that maquila
workers
being
are
so unat
that
argue
exploited
maquila
jobs
people with no skills and
no other opportunities
in the local non-maquila
take maquila
labor market will
and
jobs (Homer
tractive
that only young
Masten,
1995).
maquila
jobs
opportunities
offer
maquilas
Maquila
are more
in
the
above
advocates
that
reply
than other
attractive
local
economy
average wages,
and
benefits,
the
and
218 John
working
uals were
question:
in the
and Linda Matthews
Sargent
To determine
individ
why
we
in
the
asked
the
working
maquilas,
a
to
did you decide
obtain
Why
job
line
workers
Forty-seven
maquilas?
conditions.
usable
provided
workers
to
information
this
question.
reasons why
multiple
job and so a single response
in more
included
than one
indicated
Many
a
they had
maquila
could
have been
a representa
I contains
category. Exhibit
coding
to this question.
tive selection
of responses
The content
analysis of this question
produced
the following
results. Seventy-four
percent
(35
the
of
line workers
indicated
that
they
people)
were working
in the maquilas
due to the avail
responses
ability of maquila
employment.
Typical
in this category
that the person needed
indicated
was easy
to work
and that maquila
employment
to obtain.
viable
indicated
Others
of education
was
lack
the most
employment
some
workers
addition,
the lack of attractive
opportuni
maquila
In
option.
lamented
about
to their
that due
in non-maquila
jobs.
Fifteen
stated
that they
percent
(7 people)
in a maquila
worked
due to the indirect benefits
Three
specifically
given by the maquilas.
people
insurance.
of medical
mentioned
the availability
ties
percent
(6 people)
a job in the maquilas
because
This group was
conditions.
working
had
up
of men
that
indicated
Thirteen
saw
who
they
of maquila
largely made
other
their
option
only
to work
in construction
and did not want
being
summers.
winters
hot
and
outside
cold
during
of those responding
(14 people)
Thirty percent
indicated
as
nicians
stated
in a maquila
a job
in the
indicated
that
that
they worked
to find
possible
it was
because
industry. Technicians
frequently
there were
for
few opportunities
firms. None
maquila
that maquila
reason
why
technician
indirect
benefits
they were
indicated
working
that he
in non
them
of the technicians
indicated
were
the primary
a
in maquila.
One
in a
liked working
to maquila
due
maquila
working
two others stated they worked
while
due to attractive maquila
policies.
conditions
in amaquila
as a whole,
the explanations
given by
for
workers
why
they had maquila
maquila
jobs
one way or the other
provides no strong evidence
that maquila
attractive
than non
jobs are more
The
indicated
maquila
employment.
majority
Taken
in a maquilas
because maquila
they worked
to be especially
available. This appeared
jobs were
true for skilled technicians.
This group
indicated
in
that there were
few outlets
for their efforts
that
common maquila
local non-maquila
firms. While
attrac
do appear to be somewhat more
policies
tive
(more time off, free food and transportation,
sports teams, etc.) than many
non-maquila
jobs,
to feel a bit
workers
many
appeared
maquila
about
ambiguous
example,
because
components,
with
satisfaction
Intrinsic
great
jobs.
they worked
liked to assemble
they
electronic
formed
their
said that
to be
appeared
or
one,
for
did
they
auto
harnesses,
sew
clothing.
actual work
per
an alien concept
to the
to
the
line
of maquila
majority
No
where
and
technical
workers.
chose
that
employment
they
maquila
of maquila
responses
Typically
policies.
in this category were people
that stated that there
on
time off in the maquilas,
is more
especially
because
Saturday and Sunday, and
free time for non-work
liked
they
activities.
to have
While
from
employees
purposes.
the interviews
viewees
stated
that
used
One
was
one
the days off for enter
other notable
finding
that several
they would
of the inter
receive
greater
pay in non-maquila
employment.
statements
for
made
The
by the technicians
were very similar to
why
they had maquila
jobs
those from line workers.
Six of the eight tech
take home
jobs
and a person's prior
employment
this
said they used this time to find a second
person
common
more
that
response was
job, a much
maquila
tainment
of maquila
Comparison
to determine
the attractiveness
approach
was
a
to compare
of maquila
employment
job with
person's maquila
non-maquila
employ
Another
ment
in the person's
If maquila
work
past.
than other local opportunities,
more
attractive
would
seem
non-maquila
maquila
likely
jobs
sector.
To
workers
maquila
kinds of jobs
person's
be
that people would
work
and finding
were
have
employment
you
make
asked
had
history
it
leaving
in the
this
comparison,
the question: What
in the past? Once
was
is
established,
a
he
Relative
Attractiveness
Jobs 219
ofMaquiladora
EXHIBIT I
The
are in response
quotes
following
to the question: Why
did you decide
a job
to obtain
on Sunday. And
pay a little more
it is easier to get a job there and you don't have to work
(1) Because
out better than working
centers. They
in one of the commercial
in the maquilas?
a lot of times it turns
but the amount isn't
significant.
-
in the maquilas?
They pay a little more
a
sometimes
little more
in the shopping
No,
they pay
for
centers but
in the maquilas
they pay for food
and
transportation.
in other places they work a lot and they work Saturday
(2) Because
a job in the maquilas) because you can use Saturday and Sunday
it is a job
(3) Well,
a
for
here
time.
long
that, even
A
it doesn't
though
can work
You
year.
else, right? Iwork
than anything
pay much,
in a maquila
as
in a maquila,
but
and Sunday. And it helps a lot (to have
to have another job somewhere
else.
it is safe. It is a safe job because
as you
long
want.
Because
it is a job that is very
there
are more
it will
last
maquilas
easy to get.
I find one? I haven't finished my studies.
else would
(4) Where
So for people who have only finished primary it is the only option?
Yes.
(5) For the Seguro Social.
- Do
they have Seguro Social in other jobs?
insurance. In restaurants they do give it but you have to walk
Well,
generally it is essential to have medical
around serving people and all that and in the maquila you are seated all the time. You don't get dirty or
anything like that, not your clothes or your hands.
(6)
(7)
I am
Because
-
It is all right,
In what
Sports,
I'm
way?
on
a
single
mother
and
the environment
the maquila
I don't
have
someone
to
support
me.
For
economic
reasons.
in the maquila.
soccer
team.
I got here it was Winter,
and I didn't want to work outside. And in
(8) Well, because of the weather. When
can
it can be very cold. InWinter
freeze
But work in the maquila
outside.
is inside. In
construction,
you
cold weather
it is warm. And you have your bonuses for food, you don't bring it from home. In the same
paycheck,
you
get
your
bonuses.
Cafeteria
bonuses,
for me it is the most viable, it is where
(9) Well,
have any other training, like for an office, my
so you
can
eat.
I can find a job. I am trained for the maquiladoras.
training is for the maquiladora
(technician).
I don't
are the source of work that there ismore of. For what I studied, well, I think
(10) Well, basically the maquilas
that here is the only place to do what I do. For example,
there are degrees for technicians
in televisions,
for technicians in this, for technicians
in that. But Iwork in another field, a field that I chose that ismost
(technician).
applicable to the maquila
(11) Well, a very important reason is that I have had jobs with Mexican
companies. And there is a lot of politics,
more favoritism. And in the maquiladoras,
a
more
value
little
the performance
It
of a person.
well,
they
is a little more equal (technician).
I started in school the area I studied was as a technician,
it is called a technician
in productivity.
(12) When
And are there opportunities
for people who have this type of education
inMexican
firms? For example,
aMexican
and is not in the maquiladora
plant that is totally Mexican
program?
In another factory that is not a maquiladora?
I don't think so. Because
the degree there was for,
No,
it is especially for that, the subjects that they have, warehousing,
inventories, productivity,
quality control,
a little bit of English.
It is basically for, since we are on the border and there are a lot of maquiladoras,
it is basically for that (technician).
220 John
or
she was
asked: How
do
those
to your current job? Exhibit
II and
selection
of representative
responses
and second questions
respectively.
content
The
found
of
analysis
the
that
and Linda Matthews
Sargent
jobs compare
a
III contain
to the first
usable
provided
65
of the women
percent
question,
(11 of
indicated
in
that they had only worked
men
while
of
15
the
percent
only
maquilas
first
question
of maquila
line
prior
employment
in general
concentrated
labor (46
23 of 50) and service jobs (30 percent,
percent,
15 of 50). People
had held general
who
labor
having
33) fell
technicians
mining.
Only
with
job
managerial
(5
of
majority
did not have
The
category.
before
Sixteen
responsibilities.
this
17)
the
also
(five of eight)
the
outside
experience
maquila
industry. Three
of the technicians
held
labor jobs
had
general
or
in manufacturing
had held a
(2 percent)
experience
one person
in
of
in agriculture
and/or
jobs had typically worked
while
construction
service
in hotels
jobs were
or restaurants.
Five people
(10 percent)
reported
some
reported
For the
who
was
workers
that they had only
line worker
sample
information
for
this
(32 percent)
in maquilas.
people
worked
their maquila
employment.
If a person had held a non-maquila
to compare
asked
past,
they were
maquila
to
jobs
Thirty-five
non
current
their
people
in the
job
their
jobs.
maquila
usable
information
provided
EXHIBIT II
The
(1)
Iworked
(2)
In
(3)
Iwas
responses
following
as a cashier
construction.
are to the question: What
in Soreana
With
construction
the
a street vendor.
(a big department
here
Selling
companies,
in Ju?rez.
kinds of jobs have you had
store). And
that was
I sold tools,
in another
factory.
car mechanic.
it. Carpentry,
locks.
coupon
in the past?
I sold things here
in that big
store, and in
the market.
as a painters
jobs have been
(4) My
a butchers
helper,
electricians
helper,
helper,
a general
and in
laborer,
farming.
Iwas studying and during vacations
the same. When
Iworked
we
would
hire
students
vacations
and
could
work.
they
during
in the maquilas.
(5) Well,
In Chihuahua,
(6)
In
the United
at the golf course,
Iworked
I went
when
States,
carrying
there
there,
was
two friends
clubs. And with
a recession
and
there
was
It is that sometimes
I picked
work
hardly
asparagus,
for
apples.
you
people,
right?
(7) Sometimes we would be wet backs, working
done that job for three years.
I came here?
(8) Before
(9) All kinds.
-
In other
In
others
Iworked
in El Paso. There
are a lot of maquilas,
and it is a job.
I have
in the fields.
. . .
Like
maquilas?
and
besides
in
that
a house
as
a
servant,
I left
that.
In
general
labor,
in
agriculture,
in
every
thing.
(10)
In construction.
It's better in the maquila.
Even
Bricklayer.
is hard. They pay more but it ismore difficult.
difficult in the maquila or in construction?
difficult in construction.
though
it is more
money,
the work
in con
struction
- More
More
(11)
In Tijuana? From
them. As a helper,
(12) Well,
here
in my
the time
and when
house,
I was six until I was eight, nine, I worked with my brothers,
trucking with
Iwas ten to eleven I did the same thing, as a driver, but also as a helper.
cutting
hair. And
I'm still doing
that, but
I also want
to keep working.
Relative
Attractiveness
ofMaquiladora
221
Jobs
EXHIBIT III
The
responses
following
It is better
(1)
are to the question:
present
(the person's
How
do those jobs compare with
current
your
job?
it is easier.
job) because
is cleaner, a better work
environment,
(2) On one hand the work
difference between
the maquila and other places.
?
But you liked your jobs in the past?
a lot of times they don't
Yes, I liked them but in construction
better
indirect
benefits,
is the
that
have medical
insurance.
Insurance is
if you get sick, in the maquilas
something very important. Because
they have insurance, it doesn't cost
you for the doctor or anything else if there is an accident. And in other places they don't give insurance
no. Everything
is paid for.
and you have to pay for the doctor when you get sick. But in the maquila,
current job is a lot better. It was dangerous,
to a lot of small ranches
Iwent
into a lot of difficult situations. They even killed people.
(3) My
got
?
It was
Yes.
even
in your
dangerous
For example,
want
to
one
hundred
work?
jealous
I sold vegetables,
because
and they would
get mad
and they would
jobs in the past were
better
in
You
controlled
percent
the
factory.
But
for the money.
earn
don't
the temperature,
that much
it is better.
It is
. . .
but
for me it is the same, it is work.
(5) Well,
?
And in the maquila,
than in other jobs that you have had in the past?
they pay more
no
It
I
is
earned
what
No,
less,
way.
years back, it is less.
I don't have to fight so much for what
I need. I can act out my
(6) Well, here I have more freedom.
material
is not denied me. I can be more
innovative.
I do a lot in my job (technician).
(7) My
?
past jobs were
It is more
very boring.
But now, no.
I like my
job a lot.
you get to know
interesting,
people.
I don't know why
it paid a little bit better. In the restaurant. But you had to work
(8) Well,
one day off. And in the maquiladoras
you have two days off.
(9) Right
could
for
now in my current job,
earn up to four hundred
this question.
that their
stated
their
Six of
the people
jobs were
current
(17 percent)
worse
than
nine
while
employment
stated that their current job
(26 percent)
people
was more
or less similar in attractiveness
to prior
stated
(57
Twenty
people
current job was better
employment.
that their
percent)
than their non-maquila
jobs in the past.
The
information
employment
history
clearly
if he or
shows that the average maquila
worker,
she held a job before
their maquila
employment,
had
what
would
consider
many
performed
as
unattractive
work.
such
maids,
relatively
Jobs
or
cashiers,
construction
laborers
site or on
on
a work
a farm
but
I like my
crew
are not
at
typically
regarded
as
compared
to
maquila
As
emphasized
employment
concept. Another
tiveness
prior
preferred
to the jobs
of
held
emphasizes
information
there
(in the U.S.),
way
people
their present
offriends
to evaluate
jobs.
ar^dfamily
attractiveness
as
a
relative
relative
attrac
a person's job with
the jobs
to
be
in
the
likely
person's
group. Equity
that employees
from
we
When
employment.
the
of
jobs,
majority
in this paper,
the
can be viewed
is to compare
by other
comparison
a
attractive
these
workers
Comparisons
job a lot.
every day and you didn't have even
it is fifty dollars per week. Lets suppose that over
eighty dollars per week. Can you imagine?
past non-maquila
non-maquila
ideas,
interesting?
it ismore
Yes,
I
me.
attack
on one hand, my
(4) Well,
prior
they were
and towns. And well,
people
(Adams,
1963)
theory
will frequently
utilize
in their comparison
222 John
are being
to determine
group
fairly by
how people
if they
To
employer.
their
gain
their jobs when
rated
as to
insight
to
compared
were
set, maquila
employees
compare with
your job
and family?
selection
representative
friends
your
indi
percent
(8 people)
question.
Twenty-one
was
attractive
cated that their maquila
less
job
in their comparison
than the jobs of people
stated that
group.
percent
(22 people)
Fifty-six
treated
likely to be in their
the jobs held by people
comparison
How
does
and Linda Matthews
Sargent
Exhibit
of
in attractiveness
jobs were
roughly
equal
stated that their
23
percent
(9 people)
only
were
held
better
than the jobs that people
jobs
are
in their comparison
numbers
group. These
their
asked:
the jobs
IV contains
a
to
responses
while
of
this
somewhat
question.
line
Thirty-nine
usable
provided
and
technical
to this
in response
information
difficult
a limited
workers
number
determine
to interpret, however,
since
of cases it was not possible
whether
was
the person
in
to
comparing
EXHIBIT IV
The
are in response
quotes
following
to the question: How does your job compare with
friends and family have?
the jobs
that your
some of my family have better jobs than I do. Friends, but there are others that at least right now,
(1) Well,
mine
is a little better than theirs. But there are others that have more ability than I do.
?
And they work in other maquiladoras?
In other
No.
?
Your
in offices,
places,
friends
more
have
because
have
they
than
education
education.
have?
you
There are some that do and some that don't, that work in banks that studied with me and they continued
I'm working
and now they have very good jobs. And since I stopped going, well,
with
their education
a
in
maquila.
It is that my
(2)
a
in
-
in
Yes,
house work
Very different,
and the work
construction.
of
lot
But
times
they
here
friends
to work
prefer
ismore
difficult.
that work
in other
the work
that are not maquiladoras?
in other places
that work
friends
A
person in the maquila.
? Do
you have other
(3)
in
construction
to
and
earn
a
little
more
than
a
that aren't maquilas?
companies
some.
And
these
working
the
time.
there
goal
as
or
a
And
painter,
if you
there
no,
are
jobs
than
your
It is easy, and there
well,
you
that
know
job?
do
to be promoted,
is the opportunity
but
you
are
just
painting,
are
going
Because
job,
for forever
well
laborer,
you
general
reason
to
I studied.
that
for
chance
study,
a little more
something
important.
are
is the
can
you
or worse
better
in a factory.
It is better
a
job is very different.
and my
factory.
But you have other
Yes,
-
at home,
family works
a
and
to
you
because
start
if you
all
and painting,
painting,
that
is it. But
be a laborer,
can
accomplish
something,
I have a brother that works here, in the Presidencia
in my family, there are professionals.
(4) For example,
as a
was
to
interview
where
the
close
(a building
taking place). And I have another sister that works
a
in
But
isn't
because
have
much
comparison.
degree, right?
they
secondary school teacher. And my work
For example, I have another sister that is a social worker. She has a degree from the Autonomous
University.
And
(5) Well,
(6) They
they work
work
something
(7) Worse.
earn,
is the secondary
the other
Now,
what
in other maquilas.
here with
like twenty.
only
I earn
teacher. And
job
they have jobs
is nothing.
like mine.
the buses. They earn more,
they
It is a lot, right? The difference.
the youngest
in
And
so, my
a month,
works
they
make
in a maquila,
in
a week.
earn up
the others
to one
hundred
pesos
are truckers. From El Paso
daily.
I earn
to Ju?rez. They
Attractiveness
Relative
their
to
jobs
maquila
What
other
maquila
jobs
noteworthy
that
indicated
that
to non
of school.
attractive
223
such
Quotes
several
from
their
as these
rates
maquila
job
to other formal
compared
of
jobs were
Mexico
in
the jobs held by people
were
the types of jobs
their comparison
group
set. One
in the comparison
held by the people
woman
to her sister
indicated
that in comparison
less
Jobs
typical
employment.
is especially
the workers
or
ofMaquiladora
that the
indicate
rather
low
when
in the Northern
jobs
labor market.
than
Intentions
had a job as a secondary
school teacher, her
was
to another worker,
job
"nothing".
According
a
as a truck driver was also more
attractive
job
indicated
that
than a maquila
One
person
job.
some of his friends had good jobs in banks,
while
job because
that was used to determine
the
question
attractiveness
relative
of maquila
employment
was: Do you plan on continuing
to work
in the
are more
If maquilas
maquilas?
of employment
than non-maquila
it seems logical a maquila
worker
out
he had dropped
in the maquilas
A final
who
he had amaquila
to continue working
attractive
forms
employment,
to
would want
EXHIBIT V
The
following
responses
are to the question:
(1) Yes. Since I have put up with so much
And for some reason, you left your
would find?
in the country or in construction.
Well,
(2) Yes.
How
Yes, but
Do
you plan on continuing
already, I am going to continue.
what kind
job in the maquiladoras,
Those
are the jobs here
Yes.
Since
I have
in the maquilas?
of work
do you
that there are the most
come? Are there better jobs out there?
it is like I told you. It is easier to find a job in the maquilas
I can. And if they pay me more.
(3) While
passport and so I can't work in El Paso.
to work
a child
than somewhere
I have
to work.
think you
of.
else.
I don't
have
a local
else is there. Right?
(4) Yes. What
- Here in
Ju?rez are they more or less the best jobs?
In the maquilas? The best jobs? Well,
it is where
there is the most work, but they aren't the best, but
is where
there is the most work. And the people go where work is offered.
(5) As soon asmy child is born, boy or girl, I'm going to quit, because the truth is that I don't want
insurance for his pregnant wife).
there (this person had a maquila job in order to obtain medical
(6)
One
-
year,
And
I'll
change
Because
(7)
two
years
to work
more.
then?
to
else.
something
the maquila
isn't
Something
anything,
more
its only
productive,
a normal
job.
I don't know, I'm not sure. Sometimes
I think
televisions or radios. You can work when you
yell at you. On the other hand, in the maquilas
For missing work,
that iswhen you lose money.
promote
it
you
something
more
productive
than
the maquila.
it would be better to look for another type of work, fixing
want to. If you get to work five minutes
late, they don't
you have to be on time, when you are supposed to work.
Or you
lose preference
from the bosses
and so they won't
(technician).
I reach a certain age, I don't think so. It would be better to start my own business.
(8) When
kind of business.
What
In the same field. A motor
repair shop or for cars. There are a lot of options that I can pick from. The
is
important thing
capital (technician).
224 John
Sargent
in the industry. Exhibit V
stay working
a representative
selection
of responses
and Linda Matthews
contains
to
this
A
their
question.
line workers
Forty-four
to this question.
mation
that
stated
(12 people)
percent
cided.
that
provided
by a maquila.
that they were
employed
stated
(4 people)
Sixty-four
they
planned
infor
percent
want
to
Twenty-seven
they did not
to be
continue
usable
Nine
unde
indicated
percent
(28 people)
to continue
in the maquila
industry.
in the sample,
Of the eight active technicians
two
to continue
indicated
that
only
they planned
working
indicated
in amaquila.
Of the remaining
six, three
to
like
work
that they would
outside
the maquilas
three were
while
of the technicians
who wanted
undecided
stated
that
Three
undecided.
to leave or were
to open up
in the local
they wanted
or car repair shops
area but they were
restricted
by a lack of start
believed
that
these small shops
up capital. They
of being more
lucrative
and
had the possibility
small
electronic
at the
same
time
they
could
be
their
own
boss.
small
number
The
siderable
Mexican
inMexican
companies
often
not
paying
legally
stated
that many
majority
the direct wages
but not above,
These
employers.
the
managers
for
unskilled
wages
employees
laws. These
same pay
mangers
paid to workers
the wages
paid
were
set by
laws have
were
by
frequently
federal
that
equal to,
local
other
stated
that
level
production
minimum
wage
the
established
roughly
rates for maquila
and for
employment
could find.
the typical maquila worker
to
have some
did
appear
maquila managers
an
once
to
increase
wages
employee
flexibility
or two,
for amonth
had been in the organization
were not
with other firms
competing
openly
they
other
jobs
While
for workers
raising starting wages.
stated that the
of the managers
The majority
offered were much
the maquilas
indirect benefits
in the local non
better
than what was available
maquila
by
economy.
Benefits
mentioned
free food
bonuses,
productivity
rias, educational
opportunities,
staff, medical
advancement
insurance,
a clean
opportunities.
who
employee."
had con
firms
stated
that
try to get away with
This person
benefits.
required
small firms
have
and
not
do
problems
have the
expenses
payroll
or in some cases the desire,
to meet
their
even
so
as
went
to
state
She
far
legal obligations.
are attracting migration
that the maquilas
flows
meeting
ability,
because
promise
Another
they follow
through
to their employees.
common
was
management
ment.
that
because
maquilas
not have
other
Many
their
with
what
they
reason
by maquila
given
at
found
jobs
people
who
do
employ
people
they
for formal employ
opportunities
com
had only
workers
maquila
education.
Maquila
primary
that non-maquila
employers
their
that a person has completed
stated
require
education
secondary
indicated
the
director
experience
usually
of maquila
screw
"fold
and
commonly
resource
Another
human
managers
interviews
were
that maquilas
stability and that
with
their
they complied
as
determined
Mexican
labor
legal obligations
by
law. One manager
characterized
many Mexican
as small, undercapitalized
businesses
firms
that
pleted
Management
the maquila
managers
attractive
due to
of
indicated
above
to
be
considered
for
labor positions.
anything
sources of
to note
It is interesting
the other
were mentioned
that
by maquila
employment
managers
Managers
could find
unskilled
as being
believed
available
that
to their
their
or
in construction
jobs
sector. Women
with
as a maid
or
male
employees.
employees
in the service
education
only a primary
a
lower level job in the
had few options
besides
sector. These
service
included
jobs mentioned
work
restaurant.
pleted
their
If female
secondary
of finding
possibility
forms of factory work
Discussion
and
or
in a hotel
employment
line employees
had com
there was
the
education,
a job as a cashier. Other
were
not
available.
conclusion
included
at plant cafete
on-site medical
environment,
and
for
interviewed
of maquila workers
a
in
worked
indicated
that
they
to
of
due
the
availability
maquila
maquila
of people
that
the majority
Also,
employment.
The majority
this
study
Relative
in jobs outside
their maquila
had worked
considered
even
though
the maquila
jobs more
industry
attractive
in
less
be
receiving
of maquila
majority
to continue working
in the
they might
The
direct
Attractiveness
compensation.
workers
also planned
indicated
that
A minority
of workers
maquilas.
if
the
felt
had
they
opportunity,
they
they
to find employment
the maquila
outside
wanted,
indicated
that
This
group
frequently
industry.
in a maquila
for such reasons as the
they worked
was
work
liked
indoors,
easier,
they
working
more
there were
advancement
opportunities
when
working
maquila
jobs,
ties, and that
We
recognize
non
than in many
in a maquila
social opportuni
there were more
time off.
there was more
that
of 59 primarily male
the generalizability
small sample
relatively
limit
workers
may
maquila
our
However,
findings.
given the goals of the study and the requirements
we felt it was more
of the research methodology
a relatively
to conduct
of
limited number
useful
interviews
in-depth
maximize
sample
composed
deliberate.
instead
of
size. While
of
primarily
attempting
our sample
this was
men,
to door
door
our
to
the maquila
workers
biased
their answers
attractiveness
of maquila
we went
to great
possible,
of
the
lengths to reduce
con
distortions.
We
systematic
possibility
ducted
the great majority
of the interviews
away
in
from the workplace
order to avoid the per
that we were
somehow
associated with
ception
maquila
responses
management,
would
be
anonymous,
tions such
and we
promised
confidential
completely
asked
"neutral"
only
their
and
ques
a
to obtain
as "Why
did you decide
in
and "How does your job
the
job
maquilas?"
and
with
that your
friends
the
compare
jobs
we
so
as
were
to
not
have?"
that
suggest
family
either
for or
the maquiladoras.
Clearly,
against
and
different
studies
using
samples
are
to
and
warranted
methodologies
replicate
our results.
extend
further
The
suggest
statements
that
exploitation
the
made
by maquila
of widespread
charges
in the maquilas
appear
workers
worker
somewhat
to the
to
appear
attractive
offer
evaluate
local
labor
comparable
than
employment
an additional
firms.
However,
is warranted
before
indigenous
sideration
the
con
is
conclusion
are attractive.
in the industry
that jobs
a
like
has
lower, middle,
Mexico,
any country,
on the work
and upper class. As the information
drawn
of maquila
history
the great majority
workers
clearly demonstrates,
come from
workers
of maquila
class
lower
who
have
backgrounds.
People
as a laborer in con
in such occupations
on a farm, or as a maid
are probably
struction,
an entry level
the only group that would
consider
maquila
the Cd.
as attractive.
job
and Cd.
In fact, the
Chihuahua
sections
with
of
the
Ju?rez
are
concentrations
of maquila
workers
highest
areas of those two cities.
also among
the poorest
to the labor market
A comparison
in the U.S.
may
help
the
place
in
job
maquila
spectrum
systematically
or against
the
While
employment.
that
jobs
maquila
market,
maquilas
or slightly more
to
used
standard
are comparisons
not
for
we
If the
economy.
interviewed
either
exaggerated.
was
sampling
more men
than
methodology,
simply found
women
to interview.
It may also be possible
that
Using
we
Jobs 225
worked
the
of
ofMaquiladora
of
attractiveness
perspective
the
Considering
in the two
the typical
the Mexican
in
entire
employment
countries,
jobs
maquila
to lower
in attractiveness
appear roughly
equal
level service jobs in a convenience
food
restaurants
pay
the minimum
countries,
both
working
and/or
Both
in
wage
attract
either
jobs typically
their
respective
younger
people
temporary
job while
they are
more
towards
attractive
something
limited
social
people with
The
of
majority
mobility.
people
a job
not view
in McDonald's
the majority
of people
similarly
in Northern
labor market
a job on the
tive.
In
or fast
a
for
looking
in the U.S.
stores
shop
floor
McDonald's;
to something
in the
overall
do not view
as attrac
of a maquila
Mexico
work
maquila
a
temporary
ideally
better.
short,
and economic
in the U.S.
do
as attractive;
a job at
on
the way
stop
is like
wrote
and Masten
(1995), Hosmer
suffer the most
the people who
due to the
are "the least amongst
us: those with
maquilas
least income,
least influence,
least education,
least
own
to
look
after
their
self-interest"
ability
our study discovered
In contrast,
(1995, p. 290).
In Hosmer
that
found that young,
unskilled
just the opposite. We
men
and women
with
lower class backgrounds
were
the group
of maquila
employees
most
likely
226 John
to benefit
from maquila
employment.
immediate
consisted
options
person's
or
unemployment
laborer, an entry
sented a step up.
a person had
"least
amongst
began
There
as
an
and Linda Matthews
Sargent
of
that maquila
us"
an
either
are a significant
and administrative
the maquilas
may not be whether
they
attractive employment
but instead whether
it is appropriate
for
attractive
employment
a multinational
for lower
provide
or not
to provide
in
class workers
a
a multi
In this context,
country.
developing
an attractive
a
for
national
person
job
providing
to survive at the bottom
rung of the
struggling
ladder may
be a greater
to that country's
than
development
an attractive
a
one that provides
to
middle
job
to state otherwise
In our view,
class bureaucrat.
and
social
economic
contribution
or upper
suggests a middle
denial
of the importance
lower
the
in developing
like
level jobs
classes
entry
class favoritism
the needs
of
and a
of
the
countries.
those
Hopefully,
offered
by the
in the
maquiladora
industry will not be necessary
econom
to develop
future asMexico
continues
that
ically. Unfortunately,
today's reality indicates
can play a productive
role
employment
maquila
of the Mexican
for lower class segments
popula
tion.
M.
Butler,
and M.
1993,
'Strategic
Teagarden:
of Worker
and
Health,
Safety,
Issues in Mexico's
Maquiladora
Management
Environmental
employment
relationship.
exploitative
tech
number
of attractive
in the maquilas
positions
and these jobs should not be forgotten.
However,
in our view
the true ethical dilemma
created by
nical
'Recruiter
unskilled
working
level maquila
repre
job often
our
it was only when
In
view,
a level or two above the
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