CHAPTER 6
Qualitative and Unobtrusive Measures
Qualitative Measures
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Qualitative research is any research that relies
primarily or exclusively on qualitative measures
Qualitative research (i.e., measures) used to:
 Generate new
theories or hypotheses
 Achieve a deep understanding of an issue
 Develop detailed stories to describe a phenomenon
Qualitative and Quantitative Data
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Qualitative data consists of “words”
Quantitative data consists of “numbers”
All qualitative data can be coded quantitatively
All quantitative data is based on qualitative
judgment
Qualitative Data
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Includes any information that can be captured that
is not numerical in nature (Miles & Huberman,
1994)
In-depth interviews (individual and group)
Direct observation (respondent is not queried)
Written documents (existing documents)
Qualitative Traditions

Ethnography
 studying

a phenomenon in the context of its culture
Phenomenology
 studying
how a phenomenon is experienced by
participants
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Field Research
 researcher
observes a phenomenon in its natural state
(“in situ”)
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Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
 to
develop a theory (“grounded” in observation) about
a phenomenon of interest
Qualitative Methods
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Participant observation
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Direct observation
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researcher not a member of the culture being studied but
remains unobtrusive
Unstructured interviewing
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researcher becomes a participant (i.e., member) in the
culture being observed
direct interaction between the researcher and respondent;
no structured interview or set direction
Case studies

intensive study of a specific individual or specific context
Table 6-3 Criteria for Judging Research Quality
from a More Qualitative Perspective
Traditional Criteria for Judging
Quantitative Research
Alternative Criteria for Judging
Qualitative Research
Internal validity
Credibility
External validity
Transferability
Reliability
Dependability
Objectivity
Confirmability
Quality of Qualitative Research
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Credibility
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Transferability
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degree to which results can be generalized to other contexts
Dependability
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establishing that the results are credible from the perspective of the
participant
description by the researcher of changes within the context that the
research occurs and how these might affect conclusions
Confirmability

degree to which others can confirm or corroborate the results
Unobtrusive Measures
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Indirect Measures
The researcher collects data without the
participant being aware of it
Attention must be paid to ethical considerations
 Possibility
of deception
 Invasion of privacy
 No informed consent
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
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Content Analysis
Systematic analysis of text in order to identify
patterns
 Thematic
analysis of text
 Indexing
 Quantitative
descriptive analysis
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
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Content Analysis (cont’d)
May involve sampling from the population of
potential texts
Identification of units of analysis
Coding of units of analysis
Limitations
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
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Secondary Analysis of Data
Re-analysis of quantitative data
May involve combining information from multiple
data sets
Can be used for replication or to subject data to
other, more sophisticated analyses
Limitations
Qualitative Research – some issues
Not everything that can be counted counts, and
not everything that counts can be counted
Albert Einstein
What do you know about
Qualitative Research?

What have you heard or read about qualitative
research?
 Easy
to do
 Not scientific
 Subjective
What do you know about
Qualitative Research?

What have you heard or read about qualitative
research?
 Inductive:
Finding a theory to explain one’s findings
 Interactive research compared to quantitative:
spending time with respondents versus “drive byes.”
 Data
collection methods can be somewhat involved
Credibility of Qualitative Inquiry

Dependent on three distinct but related inquiry
elements:

Rigorous methods
 fieldwork =
yields high quality data – which are
systematically analyzed with attention to issues of
credibility
 Credibility
of the researcher
 Dependent
on training, experience, track record
 Philosophical
belief in the value of qualitative inquiry
 naturalistic inquiry, qualitative
methods , inductive
analysis, purposeful sampling, holistic thinking
Comparing Quantitative &
Qualitative Methodologies

Which research methodology is represented by
these characteristics (Qual. or quant.)?
 Purpose
of the study
 Pose problem/ raise Questions
 Define research population
 Develop time frame
 Collect & analyze data
 Present outcomes
Data Collection
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Once you have identified that a qualitative
methodology best fits your research question,
there are numerous data collection strategies to
select from….
Some considerations:
 Full
& unqualified consent
 Site selection: Can be difficult. Knowing someone can
help get you in
 Should have more than one way of collecting data –
triangulation
 Establishing trust
Data Collection
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Some considerations:
 Access:
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Unqualified access = total access to the research site
Qualified access = might need to select another research
site/participants
Informants: insider who knows environment/politics
Gate keepers (e.g. principal; dept chair, Ad)
Negotiating: Notes/data belong to you/respondent = confidentiality
What will you deliver??? Drafts of research writing, final paper,
Entering with a problem statement does not mean that it will
remain the same throughout the data collection

Emergent possibilities
Fieldwork

Possibilities & Pitfalls
 Anxiety
producing
 Safe places
 Being unobtrusive
 Researcher
wants to be sure not to call attention to
self…blending in is important…those observed should not
even know your are there after a while
 Did
you come in with preconceived opinions?
Fieldwork

Possibilities & Pitfalls
 Establishing
 Rapport:
& Maintaining rapport
Appearance, speech, behavior, must be
acceptable to research participants
 Know the others’ language
 Nonjudgmental
 Inoffensive
 Patient
 Sense of humor
 CONFIDENTIALITY
 Subjectivity
Fieldwork
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Observations
How long are you going to be in the field?
 Field notes?
 Videotape?

 Can
be highly problematic in schools
Data Collection Types/Aspects
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Participant-Observation (wide range of
possibilities)
 Helps
researcher develop “trusted person” status
 Allows researcher to observe how observed person’s
actions correspond to observed person’ words
 Allows researcher to see the unexpected
 Assists in the development of interview questions –
connecting to known behaviors you have observed
Data Collection Types/Aspects
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Continuum of Participant-Observation:
 Mostly
observation to mostly participation
 Where on the continuum you place yourself is directly
related to the questions you are asking, context of
study, and your theoretical framework

Main Goal of Participant-Observation: To
understand the research setting, participants and
their behaviors
Data Collection Types/Aspects

Participant-Observation Process:
 Systematic
observation & detailed recordings of
environment
 Constant analysis of observations – “What’s
happening here?”
 Evidence of personal bias: Am I being judgmental?
Data Collection Types/Aspects
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Observation

General methods…
 Studying
the setting
 Describing it in detail
 “Making the familiar strange.”
 What do you notice about the participants in their natural
settings?
 interactions? Comparing their words/beliefs to their
actions
 Non verbal feedback? Gestures?
Field notes
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Notebook form
Needs to be detailed & thorough
Time consuming when done correctly
Descriptive and analytic
Field notes
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Field notebook – primary recording tool (confidential)
Describes environment, people, events, activities,
interactions, researcher ideas, reflections, questions,
exploring researcher bias
After observation, researcher returns to notes to complete
detailed summaries and expand upon observations
Descriptive and analytic:
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Accuracy without being judgmental
Such detail that you can visualize the moment a year later
Field Notes
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Poor example of Field Notes:
 “The
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class was disorderly and noisy”
Good example of Field Notes:
 “The
5th grade class contained 15 girls and 12 boys.
When I entered they were in groups of 6. One group
of 4 girls were trying to see who could blow the
biggest bubble with their gum. A group of 5 boys
began imitating a martial arts movie they had seen on
TV…”
Field Notes
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Analytic Notes:
 Observer
comments
 Observer Comments
to researcher – informal statements
the respondent makes
 Daily
reflection
 Thoughts,
concerns the researcher has with the setting,
study, emerging themes, etc.
 Researcher
etc.
acknowledges feelings, problems, ideas,
Interviewing
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Questions:
 Should
 What
be reflective of observations
did you learn as a participant-observer?
 Developing
questions - Where should your questions
come from?
 Format?
 RAPPORT
 Structured?
 Open
Ended?
 Probing?
 Non- Verbal Messages from respondent
Interviewing

Requires skill and practice
 Types
of questions asked (Patton, 2002)
 Experience
and behavior interview questions: What
respondents do or have done
 Opinion and value questions: How respondents think
about their behaviors and experiences
 Feeling questions: Questions that elicit how respondents
react emotionally to or feel about their experiences and
opinions
 Continued…
Interviewing
 Types
of questions asked (Patton, 2002)
 Knowledge
questions: What respondents know about their
worlds
 Sensory questions: elicit descriptions of what and how they
see, hear, touch, taste, smell the world around them
 Background and demographic questions: Quest. That elicit
respondents’ descriptions of themselves
Interviewing
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Other aspects of interviews
 Key
informants: possess special knowledge
 May
add information that researcher would otherwise not
have access too.
 Can sensitize the researcher to aspects of the particular
culture being investigated
 Possibilities
of interviews: rich data, etc.
 Possible pitfalls:
 Interruptions
 redirecting
 poor
questions
 researchers inability to follow up/probe
Interviewing
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Sequencing of Questions
 facilitates

completeness/comprehensiveness
Interviewing is not for everyone
 Nature
of interactions will change
 Strengths/weaknesses
 Need to be a good listener

Documents
Interviewing
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Where will interview occur?
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A convenient location for respondent?
When will you meet? Time of day is important- tired /rushed
How long do you anticipate it will last?
How often will you meet?
Audiotaped?
Interruptions?
Transcribing interviews-long , but meaningful process
Documents:

Curricular guides, newsletters, transcripts – corroborate
observations/findings LEADING TO trustworthiness
Data Analysis
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
Organizing what you have seen, heard, and read,
so that you can make sense of what you have
learned.
Ongoing throughout study:
 permits
researcher to focus and shape the study as it
proceeds
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Rudimentary Coding Scheme
 Counting
or enumerating items means they must
defined and located within data records
 Categorizing; dividing & subdividing
 Field notes are coded, audiotapes are coded
Data Analysis
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Voluminous
Computer programs
Trustworthiness (Reflect on data –What is data
telling you?)
 TRIANGULATION of
 Use
data sources
of multiple data collection techniques = data collected
in 1 way can be cross checked for accuracy with another
 Prevents researcher from accepting to readily the validity
of initial impressions
 Assists in correcting biases that occur when the researcher
is the only observer
Data Analysis
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Trustworthiness (continued)
 Observations,
interviews, documents, etc.
 Researcher bias – continual alertness
 Peer debriefer
 someone
who reads your field notes, transcriptions,
interpretations
 Member
 data
Checks
sources provided to participants for their review,
comments, expansion of thoughts
Telling the Story
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Maintaining confidentiality – Highest priority
“Writing is a political act” (Glesne & Peshkin):
 Intended and
Unintended consequences
 Can respondents be subjected to unwanted publicity?
 Keeping at it….
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Include…Narratives/vignettes/direct quotations …
support the claims one makes in their findings