Aerial Observer
Unit 0 – Introduction
Objectives:
During this unit the cadre will:
1. Introduce instructors and students
2. Discuss administrative concerns
3. Review course objectives
4. Describe the nature of the Aerial Observer mission
5. Discuss mission limitations
1
I.
Introduction
II.
Purpose of course
The purpose of the course is to provide students with skills applicable to successful
operation as an Aerial Observer. This material is intended to supplement the
Interagency Aviation Training modules required for Fixed-Wing Flight Manager –
Special Use.
III.
Course Objectives
Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to;

Describe procedures for safe and efficient flight operation

Describe procedures for reporting incident location, size and behavior to
dispatch and ground resources

Understand the limits of the aerial observer mission with regard to other
incident aircraft
IV.
The Aerial Observer Mission
The purpose of the aerial observer is to locate and relay incident information to fire
management and dispatch. In addition to detecting, mapping and sizing up new
fires, the AOBS may provide ground resources with intelligence on fuels and fire
behavior and describe access routes into and out of the incident areas for
responding units.
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V.
Mission Limitations
As described in the Interagency Standards for Fire and Fire Aviation Operations
Chapter 16, only qualified Aerial Supervisors (ATGS, ASM, HLCO and Lead/ATCO) are
authorized to coordinate airspace operations and give directions to aviation assets.
Flights with a “Recon, Detection or Patrol” designation should communicate with
tactical aircraft only to announce location and altitude and to relay their departure
direction and altitude from the incident.
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Aerial Observer
Unit 1 – Navigation and GPS
Objectives:
Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand common Latitude/Longitude formats

Understand common maps in use and their role in flight following and
incident plotting

Understand the basic features of a Sectional Chart

Become familiar with GPS units and mapping software in use on local units
4
I.
Latitude/Longitude and Datum
Several latitude/longitude formats are in use, with the two most common being
degrees minutes, seconds (DD° MM’ SS”) and degrees, decimal minutes (DD°
MM.MM’). A datum provides the reference point from which geodetic
measurements are made. The 1927 North American Datum (NAD 27) is still widely
used on many maps and by some ground units, however the Region 6 light aircraft
contract requires the use of GPS units displaying degrees, decimal minutes using the
World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84) datum. Confirm with dispatch the format
used in your area. A degree is equivalent to 60 minutes, and a minute equals 60
seconds. A minute of latitude is essentially equivalent to a nautical mile, as is a
minute of longitude at the equator. Since meridian lines converge as they approach
the poles, the greatest distance a minute of arc can transcribe is a nautical mile.
Therefore, we can say that if you’re within a minute of a given location, you’re
within a mile. A nautical mile is about 6076 feet (exactly 1852 meters by
international agreement), so a tenth of a minute is about 600 feet, and a hundredth
around 60 feet. Similarly, a second is around 100 feet, and a tenth of a second is just
about 10 feet. Many GPS displays offer readings to three and four decimal places.
But can we say with any degree of confidence that we can mark a location on the
ground from a thousand feet overhead, moving at a hundred knots with an accuracy
of a thousandth of a minute, or just 6 feet? Reporting coordinates beyond a couple
of decimal places is probably superfluous.
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II.
Maps
Aerial Observers may use a variety of maps. These include:

Forest Maps

Fireman’s Maps

Atlases and Gazetteers
A. Forest Maps
Forest maps are often readily available and depict jurisdictional boundaries, prominent
landmarks including major roads, and often display legal descriptions and
latitude/longitude – often in 7.5 minute increments. Terrain depiction is often limited.
B. Fireman’s Maps
Fireman’s maps often depict terrain with contour lines and forest roads in great detail.
They also include useful information to firefighters including water sources, helicopter
landing areas, potential incident base locations etc. While detailed, they can be difficult
to read in flight, and the maps can be large and unwieldy. Selecting and folding maps to
show areas of interest prior to flight will help with management in the cockpit.
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C. Atlases and Gazetteers
Atlases and Gazetteers allow a large number of maps to be carried conveniently in book
form. Some are commercially produced, while many units produce forest atlases for
local use. Commercial products vary in depiction of natural and man-made features, but
are often useful in gaining a “big picture” view of the landscape. Most show
latitude/longitude ticks on or near the margins allowing for easy flight following.
III.
Sectional Charts
While probably not your primary map, sectional charts provide useful data regarding
airports and special use airspace. Sectional charts can be dense with symbols, but
for your purposes, understanding a few basics will get you a long way.
A. Title page
The title of the sectional chart is at the top, and its coverage area is indicated by
the shaded portion of the map of the continental U.S. The effective dates of the
chart are also prominently displayed. Information changes periodically – radio
frequencies, airport data etc., so having up-to-date charts ensures having the
best information.
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B. Legend
The reverse of the title page contains the legend. With a little time spent
studying the legend page, you’ll gain a pretty good understanding of the symbols
depicted. For further study, the FAA produces an Aeronautical Chart User’s
Guide, which explains sectional and other charts in great detail.
C. Latitude/Longitude depiction
Latitude and longitude is shown on sectional charts in a 30 by 30 minute grid.
Small tick marks show each minute of latitude or longitude, and somewhat larger
tick marks show each 10 minutes. Here’s a sample below:
Fig. 1
Latitude and Longitude shown on a sectional chart
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Here we see the intersection of 44 degrees North latitude by 120 degrees West
longitude. Latitude increases from south to north, and longitude increases from
east to west.
D. Magnetic declination
Magnetic declination (called magnetic variation by aviators) is shown with a
dashed magenta line. Aircraft use magnetic headings, so if you’re dealing with
lookouts or ground personnel using a true north reference, knowing the local
declination facilitates making the conversion. The chart segment shown in Fig. 1
shows a 15° 30’ east declination.
E. Special Use Airspace
Several types of special use airspace are shown on sectional charts that have
implications for flight safety. A few of those are shown in Fig. 2 below:
Fig. 2
Some airspace depictions
Shifting southwest from our previous image, we see some notable airspace
depictions on the sectional. A couple of Military Operations Areas are shown
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enclosed within the hatched magenta border – Juniper North and Low, and
Juniper South and Low. MOA altitudes and times of use are shown in a table in
the margins of the sectional chart printed in magenta, like the MOAs themselves.
A couple of thin gray lines cross the area. These are military training routes –
one of which is labeled IR342. Altitude and time of use data are not shown on
the sectional chart. This information is published elsewhere, and your dispatch
office can help you determine if any potential conflicts may exist. Also note that
while the route is shown as a thin line, actual route heights and widths vary
considerably between route segments – at times becoming several miles wide.
The pale blue line in the upper left of the image is a so called “victor” airway,
extending between navigational aids. This one – labeled V269 – extends
between the Deschutes and Wildhorse VORs. Victor airways are well-used
routes that exist from 1200’ AGL up to 18000’ MSL. While their importance has
diminished somewhat with the advent of GPS, which allows point to point travel
without following specific airways, traffic along victor airways is likely to be
heavier than that found elsewhere.
F. Restricted/Prohibited areas
These areas are indicated by a hatched blue line on the sectional, as shown in
Fig. 3. These areas exist over areas of significant hazard, or over areas of vital
national security interest. Restricted areas require permission from the
controlling entity to enter – information that may be found in the sectional
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margin, shown in blue. Prohibited areas are just that – stay out or risk the ire of
those with bigger and more dangerous airplanes than the one you’re in.
Fig. 3
Restricted Airspace
G. Airport Information
The ability to identify airport information can aid in the planning of fuel stops
and identify alternate airports to use during periods of inclement weather or
during an in-flight emergency. Here are a few examples:
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Fig. 4
Christmas Valley airport
Christmas Valley is an airport with a single runway, does not have fuel or other
services such as a mechanic, and is an uncontrolled field, which is to say that it
does not have a control tower. Uncontrolled airports are shown in magenta.
The runway is shown within the magenta circle oriented as it is on site – in this
case running east-west. The star atop the magenta circle indicates that the
airport has a rotating beacon that helps identify the airport location at night, or
during periods of low visibility. Civil airport beacons alternately flash a green and
white light. The airport name is shown, along with the three-character
designator of the field, 62S. Below the airport name, the field elevation is shown
in bold italic type, 4317 feet above sea level. The asterisk and letter “L” indicate
the presence of runway lighting. The two-digit number 52 indicates the length of
the runway in hundreds of feet, 5200 feet in this case. For airports with more
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than one runway, this number describes the usable length of the longest
runway. Since Christmas Valley is an uncontrolled field, pilots are expected to
announce their intentions over the radio, and maintain their own traffic
separation. The bold italic number 122.8 indicates the radio frequency in use at
Christmas Valley, called a Unicom frequency. Many larger airports also have a
Unicom frequency used for getting airport advisory information, ordering fuel
etc. In this case the magenta circle with the letter “C” inscribed indicates that
122.8 is also the CTAF, or Common Traffic Advisory Frequency used by pilots to
announce intentions.
Here’s a somewhat bigger airport:
Fig. 5
Ogilvie Field
Like Christmas Valley, Ogilvie Field is uncontrolled, but with a few differences.
Perhaps the most significant difference is the availability of fuel, as shown by the
square tick marks around the perimeter of the magenta airport symbol. There is
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also an Automated Weather Observing System, or AWOS on the field, which
continuously broadcasts weather observations. Some AWOS stations have
different features, and the number 3 suffix in this case shows that this AWOS
reports visibility and ceiling height information in addition to basic weather
observations. You can hear the broadcast by tuning one of the airplane VHF-AM
radios to 118.375. Ogilvie Field also has two runways, and the depiction RP27
indicates that runway 27 has a right-hand traffic pattern. Runways are
numbered according to their orientation to magnetic north, so runway 27 is
oriented 270 degrees relative to magnetic north. Approaching from the other
direction, the runway is oriented 90 degrees, and is numbered 9.
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Here’s a depiction of a controlled field:
Fig. 6
Pendleton
Controlled airports like Pendleton are shown in blue. Its control tower frequency
is 119.7, with the star next to the frequency indicating that this is a part-time
tower. When the tower is closed, the “C” within the blue circle shows that 119.7
remains the CTAF frequency, and pilots are expected to self-announce intentions
on this frequency just as though it were an uncontrolled field. Pendleton also
has an automatic weather station on the airport, in this case an Automated
Surface Observing System operating on 118.325. There is also a Unicom
frequency for the airport of 122.95.
Many controlled airports also broadcast airport and weather information
continuously through an Automatic Terminal Information Service, or ATIS
frequency. Unlike an AWOS or ASOS, the ATIS broadcast is a recording created
15
by the controllers on the field, and is usually updated hourly, unless airport
conditions change dramatically before the next scheduled update. In addition to
weather data, an ATIS broadcast also includes airport information such as the
runways and instrument approach systems in use, and relevant Notices to
Airmen, or NOTAMS.
IV.
GPS and Mapping Software
You may find a variety of GPS units and mapping software in use on your home unit,
with a great deal of variability in sophistication and features. Panel mounted units in
the airplane are required by contract to use the degrees and decimal minutes
format, with the WGS 84 datum. Hand-held units may be configured differently.
Confirm with dispatch the format and datum used in your area. It’s not a bad idea
to state format and datum when communicating with ground units. A GPS unit can
be set to a different coordinate system fairly easily, but you might find it convenient
to keep a conversion table handy to switch between degrees, minutes, seconds to
degrees, decimal minutes. A conversion table is given below:
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
.02
.03
.05
.07
.08
.10
.12
.13
.15
.17
.18
.20
.22
.23
.25
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
.27
31 .52
46 .77
.28
32 .53
47 .78
.30
33 .55
48 .80
.32
34 .57
49 .82
.33
35 .58
50 .83
.35
36 .60
51 .85
.37
37 .62
52 .87
.38
38 .63
53 .88
.40
39 .65
54 .90
.42
40 .67
55 .92
.43
41 .68
56 .93
.45
42 .70
57 .95
.47
43 .72
58 .97
.48
44 .73
59 .98
.50
45 .75
60 1.0
Fig. 7
Conversion from seconds (left columns) to decimal minutes (right columns)
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Aerial Observer
Unit 2 – Airspace/Deconfliction/Flight Following/FTA/TFRs
Objectives:
Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand Special Use Airspace and other potential airspace hazards

Understand local airspace deconfliction procedures

Understand flight following methods

Learn the significance of the Fire Traffic Area

Understand Temporary Flight Restrictions
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I.
Airspace
The airspace in which we operate may contain numerous hazards, seen and unseen,
that have potentially significant impact on our operations. This unit describes some
of the airspace-related hazards and attempts at mitigation. Topics addressed
include:

Local Aviation Hazard Maps

Military Operations Areas

Military Training Routes

Unit boundary issues
A. Aviation Hazard Maps
Aviation Hazard Maps should be available for your unit, and are often prominently
displayed at air bases and dispatch offices. As the manager of you flight, you should
become familiar with local hazards. Hazard maps are a useful aid, but are unlikely to
account for all potential dangers within your area. Use the maps as a basis for
understanding local hazards, but keep your eyes open in flight!
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B. Military Operations Areas
Military Operations Areas may overlie you patrol area. These areas are depicted on
Sectional Charts with a hatched magenta border. In the margin of the sectional chart,
also printed in magenta, is a table describing the MOAs depicted on the sectional, along
with times and altitudes of use, and contact information of the controlling entity.
C. Military Training Routes
Military Training Routes are depicted on sectional charts with faint gray lines. However,
route widths and altitudes of use wary widely, and are not depicted on the chart. Your
dispatch office should be able to help you determine which routes are likely to be in use
on a given day. This does not relieve the flight crew of the responsibility to see and
avoid other traffic!
D. Unit Boundaries
Incidents near unit boundaries dictate special caution since responding aircraft that may
be out of communication with one another could be rapidly converging.
Communication between dispatch offices and between airborne units and dispatch
should head off most conflicts, but poorly reported incidents of uncertain location, and
flight crews crossing unit borders unannounced can contribute to added danger. Your
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neighboring units may appreciate your assistance, but communication with your home
and adjacent dispatch offices is essential.
II.
Deconfliction
Deconfliction refers to the identification and attempted mitigation of airspace
hazards. Many dispatch offices expend considerable effort in providing deconfliction
information to air crews – make the most of it! Deconfliction extends to activities
such as:
III.

Agency fire and resource flights

Military activity

Special events – fly-ins, air shows etc.

Local attractions – sightseeing, hang glider/paraglider activity etc.
Flight Following
Keeping dispatch informed of the location and status of airborne resources is the
purpose of flight following. You can aid your dispatch office and other interested
parties by being aware of the following:

Dispatch procedures

Flight Following frequencies

Automated Flight Following

Use of transponder code 1255
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A. Dispatch Procedures
Chapter 20 of the National Interagency Mobilization Guide provides direction on the role
of dispatch regarding flight following, including the use of Automated Flight Following.
Your dispatch office may employ minor variations, but flight crews should be prepared to
report duration of fuel on board, number of souls on board and confirm AFF activation
upon launch, and report any deviations from the planned route while airborne.
B. Flight Following Frequencies
Confirm your primary flight following frequency, and any secondary frequencies in use
with dispatch before departure. You may be asked to report status on a local simplex or
repeater frequency, on a local flight following frequency, or use the National Flight
Following frequency of 168.650 RX/TX tone 110.9.
C. Automated Flight Following
Automated Flight Following is a system of resource tracking using a communication link
between an on-board transmitter, satellite relay and downlink to ground-based stations.
The system allows flight following in near-real time, reporting aircraft identifier, altitude,
speed and heading. After launch, observers should confirm with dispatch that AFF is
22
operational. Occasionally the system may fail, and you may need to reset the transmitter
by recycling the power switch or circuit breaker. If recycling AFF fails to fix the problem,
be prepared to check in with dispatch by radio every 15 minutes, reporting position,
heading and altitude.
D. Transponder code 1255
The transponder is an on-board transceiver that allows Air Traffic Control to identify
specific aircraft with a user selected four digit code. While the standard code for aircraft
operating under Visual Flight Rules is 1200 (unless otherwise specified by ATC),
firefighting aircraft are asked to use a transponder code of 1255. According to the
Interagency Standards for Fire and Fire Aviation Operations:
All firefighting aircraft are required to have operative transponders and will
use a transponder code of 1255 when engaged in, or travelling to,
firefighting operations (excluding ferry flights), unless given a discrete code
by Air Traffic Control (ATC).
IV.
Fire Traffic Area
The Fire Traffic Area is a concept used by the land management agencies to define
the airspace surrounding an incident, and allow for the management of air traffic
within. Its dimensions are based upon that used by the FAA to define Class D
airspace – that existing around a controlled airport— that is, a radius of 5 miles from
the incident center, and extending upward to 2500 feet above ground level. One
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important distinction is that while Class D airspace only requires positive
communication with the controlling entity for entry, the FTA requires a clearance to
enter. The controlling entity for an FTA is an aerial supervisor if one is present, or an
aircraft already at scene. Initial contact should be made no closer to the incident
than 12 nm, and in the absence of a clearance to enter arriving aircraft should
approach no closer than 7 nm from the incident. The likelihood of detection aircraft
routinely entering operating FTAs is remote, but observers should be prepared to
communicate with other incident aircraft. Bear in mind that while FTAs are regularly
used by agency aircraft, civil or military aircraft are likely to be unaware of the FTA
or its significance. Be prepared to see and avoid other air traffic.
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Fig. 8
The Fire Traffic Area
25
V.
Temporary Flight Restrictions
In order to provide a safe operating environment for incident aircraft, Temporary
Flight Restrictions may be requested by emergency management agencies and
imposed by the FAA. TFR dimensions wary widely. The basic TFR extends in a 5 nm
radius from the incident, and extends upward to 2000 feet above the highest aircraft
operating on the incident, although the TFR may be a large polygon. The Notice to
Airmen that describes the TFR will include its dimensions. Like the Fire Traffic Area,
entry is controlled by the aerial supervisor on scene, or by Air Traffic Control. Unlike
the FTA, however, these restrictions are imposed upon all aircraft and are regulatory
in nature. Conditions for the imposition of TFRs can be found in FAR 91.137, and in
the Interagency Aerial Supervision Guide, Chapter 4. While detection aircraft might
not routinely operate within a TFR, numerous TFRs may exist during periods of high
fire activity within a patrol area. Keeping clear of TFRs contributes to safety, and is
the responsibility of all flight crews. Your dispatch office can help you locate TFR
boundaries, and online sources – such as www.tfr.faa.gov – can provide maps and
descriptions of active TFRs.
26
Fig. 9
A TFR overlaid onto a sectional chart from www.tfr.faa.gov
27
Aerial Observer
Unit 3 – Detection Methods/Incident Reporting/Size-up
Objectives:
Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand local protocol for incident reporting

Describe location and fire behavior using standard terminology
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I.
Patrol Routes
Some units have established patrol routes with specific checkpoints. Other units
patrol specific areas in response to lightning or human-caused risk. Regardless of
the methods employed, confirm planned routes with dispatch and plan to
thoroughly cover areas of greatest concern.
II.
Identifying Smokes
While most smokes are readily discernable, some are very difficult to spot. Often,
other phenomena – dust, clouds etc. – can be confused for smoke. Maneuvering
directly overhead and spotting burning material on the ground provides the best
confirmation, but smoke drift may make this difficult. It might take several passes for
positive identification. Bear in mind that as long as the fire burns, smoke is being
produced in some quantity. Smoke often has a bluish color. Scraps of cloud – “water
dogs” – dissipate and evaporate, and often appear silvery especially with the sun
behind you. Dust dissipates over time, and generally resembles its source material in
color. Smoke associated with human activity indicated by the presence of vehicles,
tents or structures may be benign, but may be an escaped campfire, debris burn, or
the result of an activity such as welding. Close scrutiny is warranted.
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Variations in sun angle can make faint smokes easier to spot. Smokes can be
illuminated with the sun behind you, or be silhouetted when between you and the
sun. Making broad circles around your area of interest will often give you a glimpse
of smoke not readily visible when viewed from a single angle.
III.
Incident Reporting Protocol
Many units use a standardized incident reporting/size-up format – often in the form
of an incident reporting form. Become familiar with the method in use on your unit.
The idea is to convey accurate information quickly. In the absence of a specific local
format, an incident reporting checklist, such as that found in the Incident Response
Pocket Guide can help convey relevant information.
IV.
Describing Location and Fire Behavior
Fire managers and dispatchers rely on timely, accurate information provided by
aerial observers to make decisions regarding the degree and type of incident
response. Following local protocol with regard to location reporting (correct
latitude/longitude format, legal descriptions, landmarks etc.) aids this process. To
the extent possible, fire behavior should be reported using standard terminology –
creeping, running, spotting, torching etc.
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V.
Coordination with Lookouts and Ground Units
Aerial observers can help pinpoint those fires obscured from clear view by lookouts
or responding ground units. Often, a lookout can provide a heading from their
location to the incident. Bear in mind, though, that while lookout fire finders are
oriented to true north, aircraft use magnetic headings. Magnetic declination (called
variation by aviators) is given on various map types, and is always shown on
sectional charts by a dashed magenta line. Become familiar with the declination in
your area, and you should be able to readily convert between true and magnetic
north. In the western U.S., where an east declination exists, the mnemonic “east is
least” can help you convert from true to magnetic headings. For example, in an area
of 15 ° declination, given a true heading of 270 °, subtract 15 from 270 to give a
magnetic heading of 255 °.
Assisting ground units find small fires can save a great deal of time and frustration.
A useful method is to fly a line from personnel on the ground to the fire, reporting a
heading and calling the ground personnel as the airplane passes over the fire. Make
sure to specify if you’re using true or magnetic headings. Reading the heading from
the directional gyro in the instrument panel will provide a more accurate heading
than trying to use the magnetic compass. Your pilot can help you with this. It may
be difficult for ground personnel to tell when the airplane is directly over the fire. If
this is the case, flying a line perpendicular to the direction of travel of people on the
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ground, and announcing when over the fire can give a better sense of the incident
location.
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Aerial Observer
Unit 4 – Radio Introduction
Objectives:
Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Become familiar with AM and FM radios in use

Understand appropriate use of frequencies

Understand importance of sterile cockpit procedures during critical phases of
flight

Understand lost communication procedures
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I.
Radio set-up and Programming
The success of the aerial observer mission hinges upon effective communication
inside and outside the airplane. To this end, you should become familiar with the
following equipment:

The audio control panel and intercom

The VHF-FM radios

The VHF-AM radios
A. The audio control panel and intercom
Audio control panels vary in configuration between aircraft, but will have some or all of
the following features: The ability to select or deselect various radios, control their
volume, activate or disable voice activation of the intercom and control its sensitivity,
provide a volume control for the intercom and a master volume for all radios. In aircraft
without voice-operated intercoms, a push-to-talk switch is required. A push-to-talk
switch is also likely necessary to transmit on the FM and AM radios. This may be a yoke
mounted switch, be an in-line plug in switch or may be mounted to the instrument
panel with a 9-pin cannon plug or may plug into the microphone jack of the headset.
Taking time to become familiar with your airplane’s configuration may save substantial
frustration when aloft. The image below shows a typical audio control panel:
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Fig. 10
Aircraft Audio Control
The user can select the radios to listen to with the white toggles, and the radio to
transmit on with the rotary knob.
B. VHF-FM Radios
The radios used to communicate with dispatch and ground units are VHF-FM units.
They may be panel mounted or come as part of a removable radio kit. Once configured,
selecting the appropriate frequency is a simple matter, but it will be to your great
benefit to become familiar with entering new frequencies, selecting, deselecting and
changing repeater access tones, toggling between wide and narrow band functions and
selecting guard frequencies.
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Fig. 11
A typical VHF-FM radio
C. VHF-AM Radios
Air to air communications are conducted on the panel mounted AM radios (also called
“victor” radios). Their use is selected by the audio panel. Brief with your pilot to
determine which radio is best for your use. Channel selection is usually straightforward.
Keeping it tuned to the Air/Air frequency for your unit helps maintain situational
awareness of other aircraft activity. Other incidents along or near your patrol route may
use other Air/Air frequencies. Knowing these frequencies is essential if you need to
transition through or operate near TFRs and FTAs. Knowing the Air/Air frequency of
adjoining units will allow you to coordinate activity when operating near jurisdictional
boundaries.
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Fig. 12
A VHF-AM Nav/Com radio
The image above shows a typical aircraft “victor” radio. It’s actually two radios; a
navigation receiver and a communications transceiver. Two frequencies can be tuned,
with the active and standby frequency selected by toggling the white arrow button.
Tuning is done with the round rotary knobs – the large outer one tunes Megahertz,
while the small inner knob tunes Kilohertz or those digits after the decimal point.
II.
Frequencies
Your mission will require the use of several frequencies on a routine basis, as well as
a few others you should be familiar with. These include:

Direct frequencies

Repeater frequencies

Air/Ground

Air/Air

Flight following

Air Guard
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A. Direct frequencies use a single receive/transmit frequency, and may or may not have an
associated sub-audible tone allowing for selective reception.
B.
Radio repeaters are often used to provide coverage to specific geographic areas.
Repeaters use two frequencies – receiving on one and transmitting on another. Many
repeaters are activated by a sub-audible tone. Some repeater systems use the same
frequency pair for multiple repeaters with each repeater activated by a discrete tone;
while some systems activate each repeater with its own receive/transmit frequency
pair. Since repeater frequencies operate with two separate frequencies, and may also
have both receive and transmit tones, care must be taken in radio programming to
assure activating the desired repeater.
C. While initial contact with ground units may be made on repeater frequency, extended
conversations, such as directing a ground unit into an incident should take place on the
locally designated Air/Ground frequency.
D. Contact between aircraft takes place on the Air/Air frequency using the VHF-AM radios
in the airplane. Monitoring the local Air/Air frequency is a good practice, and is
essential during periods of high activity.
38
E. Flight following with dispatch may take place on a locally dedicated flight following
frequency, on a repeater frequency, with the appropriate repeater selected depending
on location, or on the National Flight Following frequency. Conversations on dedicated
flight following frequencies should be limited to position and status reporting, with
incident reporting and size-up and traffic with ground units limited to local frequencies
as appropriate.
F. The Air Guard frequency (168.625 MHz, Tx tone 110.9) has been established by the
USDA/USDI as a continuously monitored emergency frequency. Authorized uses
include: In-flight aircraft emergencies, emergency communications between aircraft, or
between aircraft and ground units, or for the initial call, recall or redirection of aircraft
when other means fail. It should be selected and monitored in those FM radios that
offer a “guard” setting.
III.
Sterile Cockpit in the Terminal Area
Chapter 16 of the Interagency Standards for Fire and Fire Aviation Operations states
the following with regard to sterile cockpit procedures:
Sterile cockpit rules apply within a 5-mile radius of the airport. The flight
crew will perform no radio or cockpit communication during that time that
is not directly related to safe flight of the aircraft from taxi to 5 miles out
39
and from 5 miles out until clearing the active runway. This would consist of
reading checklists, communication with Air Traffic Control, Flight Service
Stations, Unicom, or other aircraft with the intent of ensuring separation or
complying with ATC requirements. Communications by passengers or air
crew members can be accomplished when the audio panels can be isolated
and do not interfere with flight operations of the flight crew.
Safe operations require coordination with your pilot. Limit radio use when in the
airport area, and confirm with your pilot that you are free to use the radios without
interfering with flight operations. If your audio configuration allows, monitoring the
VHF-AM used by your pilot – perhaps at a lower volume – will help you maintain
situational awareness with regard to other air traffic, and help you be aware of
those times your pilot has radio traffic with Air Traffic Control or other aircraft.
IV.
Communications Failure
The National Interagency Mobilization Guide, Chapter 20 states:
If radio contact cannot be established the pilot will abort the mission and
return to the airport.
If radio communication can’t be established on any of your frequencies,
terminate the mission and return to the airport. The mission may also be
terminated if your radio capability is degraded to the point that effective
communication becomes difficult. Contact dispatch as soon as practical.
40
Aerial Observer
Unit 5 – Mission Preparation
Objectives:
Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand steps required for thorough mission preparation

Understand pilot and dispatch briefing elements

Understand flight hour, duty day and daylight limitations
41
I.
Elements of Mission Preparation
Adequate attention to mission preparation sets the stage for a successful mission.
You’ll want to make sure that you have the necessary items in your kit, that your
electronic gadgets work and have adequate batteries, aircraft and pilot cards are
checked and up to date, you’ve been briefed on your mission, you have received a
passenger safety briefing from your pilot, that you will be within flight hour and duty
day limitations, and can complete your mission within daylight hours.
II.
Detection Kit Contents
Kit contents are likely to vary, but here are some items to consider:
Aerial Observer Daily Checklist
Local Atlas
Kneeboard
Air/Air & Air/Ground Frequency Sheets
NAT & Technisonic Radio Programming Instructions
Regional Aviation Frequency Guide
Aerial Detection Fire Size-up Forms
Note Paper
Pens/Pencils
Local Radio Channel Plan
Airsickness Bags
Area Maps
Batteries/Cables/Connectors for electronic devices in use
42
III.
Aircraft and Pilot Cards
Aircraft and pilot cards need to be current, both pilot and aircraft approved for
reconnaissance missions and aircraft cards need to be issued for the specific airplane
in use.
Figure 13
Pilot Qualification Card
43
IV.
Pilot and Dispatch Briefings
Thorough briefings are critical to safety and mission success. Information should be
exchanged through the following:

Pre-flight dispatch briefing

Passenger safety briefing

Post-flight after action review
A. Pre-flight dispatch briefing
Your briefing with dispatch should include routes of flight and areas of interest,
frequencies including repeaters, ground contacts, flight following and check-in
procedures and other air traffic. It may be useful to review lightning data and download
or print appropriate maps. If your pilot can attend, so much the better – otherwise,
you’ll have to repeat much of the same information.
B. Passenger safety briefing
Prior to flight, be sure to get a safety briefing from your pilot. This should include:

Operation of doors and emergency exits

Use and operation of seat belts
44

Positioning and locking seats

Location of 1st aid and survival equipment

Location and operation of fire extinguisher

Location of electrical and fuel shut-off

Emergency procedures
C. Post-flight after action review
You may find it useful to conduct an after action review with your pilot, or dispatch or
both regarding mission efficiency and effectiveness. Look for opportunities to conduct a
safer, smoother operation.
V.
Use of Daily Checklist
Your unit may provide a checklist of observer duties. A sample is included below:
Aerial Observer Daily Checklist
Preflight:






Check in with aircraft desk
Ensure observer kit is complete
Obtain briefing on current incidents, applicable TFRs and status of Special Use Airspace
Review daily weather forecast
Obtain a copy of lightning map
Plan patrol route with coordinator
45



Brief pilot on mission, including other aircraft activity
Obtain pilot briefing on aircraft procedures, radio operation and radio kit installation if
applicable
Review timekeeping procedures for your airplane. Note Hobbs meter and/or clock time.
During Flight







Record take-off time
Maintain sterile cockpit while in airport vicinity
Confirm transponder is on and squawking 1255
Upon initial contact with dispatch, report aircraft identifier, number on board and fuel
duration in hours, confirm AFF operation or initiate 15 min. check-in
Configure radios to monitor Air to Air and Air Guard frequencies
Look for smokes!
If crossing jurisdictional boundaries, notify dispatch offices and switch to appropriate
A/A frequency
Inbound for landing


Inform dispatch you are landing
Maintain sterile cockpit while in airport vicinity
Post Flight



VI.
Note time of engine shut-down
Notify dispatch of status
At day’s end, complete daily diary, ABS or AMD 23 as applicable
Flight Hour and Duty Day Limitations
You will be responsible for monitoring your pilot’s flight hours and duty day. During
most situations the Phase 1 limitations apply. Periods of high activity may dictate
46
the implementation of more restrictive Phase 2 or 3 guidelines. Your dispatch office
can advise you when the more rigorous limitations are indicated. The basic Phase 1
limitations are described below:
The basic requirements of phase 1 apply generally to all Forest Service aviation missions.
Phases 2 and 3 (sec. 11.27b and 11.27c) must be implemented during extended periods of high
levels of flight mission activity.
1. All flight crewmembers flying Forest Service missions are limited to the following
tours of duty, and all work-related time must count toward these limitations:
a. Duty includes flight time, ground duty of any kind, and standby or alert status at
any location. This restriction does not include “on-call'' status outside of any
required rest or off-duty periods.
b. Flight time must not exceed a total of 8 hours per duty day.
c. Assigned duty of any kind must not exceed 14 hours in any 24-hour period.
d. Flight crewmembers accumulating 36 hours of flight time in any 6 consecutive
days or less are required to have the following day off. Maximum cumulative flight
hours must not exceed 42 hours in any 6 consecutive days.
e. Within any 24-hour period, flight crewmembers shall have a minimum of 10
consecutive uninterrupted hours off duty immediately prior to the beginning of the
next duty day.
f. During any 14-consecutive-day period, flight crewmembers shall be off duty for
two 24-hour periods from the time of last duty. The 24-hour off-duty periods need
not be consecutive.
2. Two-pilot crews flying point-to-point missions (airport to airport) are limited to 10
hours flight time in any duty day. Pilots flying two-pilot crew missions, who may be
assigned to fly other types of Forest Service missions during the same duty period, are
limited to the flight hour limitations in the preceding paragraphs 1a through 1f of this
section.
3. The contracting officer or representative may waive the "consecutive" limitation in
the preceding paragraph 1e in this section to enable pilots flying infrared or aerial spray
projects two shorter off-duty rest periods, provided they accumulate 12 hours of rest or
more in any 24-hour period. One of the rest periods must include at least 8 hours of
47
uninterrupted rest. Do not grant a waiver of the "consecutive" limitation in paragraph
1e more than three times in any 14-duty-day cycle.
A full description of the three phases of flight hour and duty day limitations can be
found in the Interagency Standards for Fire and Fire Aviation Operations, Chapter
16.
VII.
Sunrise/Sunset
Your flights will be limited to the ½ hour prior to sunrise until the ½ hour after
sunset. Dispatch can provide you with these times, or you can find a sunrise/sunset
table for your area from the U.S. Naval Observatory at
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs. Some people may use the term “civil twilight”
to describe legal flight hours, and while for most places in mid-latitudes civil twilight
is within a couple of minutes of ½ hour before and after sunrise and sunset, the
terms are not synonymous (civil twilight occurs when the sun is within six degrees of
the horizon).
VIII.
Aerial Observer Operating Plan
Your unit may have an Aerial Observer Operating Plan, either as a stand-alone
document, or as part of the unit’s aviation plan. Become familiar with its contents.
48
Aerial Observer
Unit 6 – Aviation Weather and Mountain Flying
Objectives:
Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Recognize weather-related flight hazards

Understand potential risks in mountain flying
49
I.
Weather Hazards to Flight
Numerous weather phenomena may create hazardous flying conditions. These
include, but are not limited to:

Thunderstorms

Mountain Waves

High Density Altitude

Reduced Visibility
A. Thunderstorms
Most of your fires are likely to be caused by lightning. The thunderstorms responsible
may still be active when you arrive. Since thunderstorms and light airplanes don’t mix
very well, approach active storms with caution. Strong up and down drafts, hail and
reduced visibility all have adverse implications for flight safety. While small, isolated
cells might allow operation in relatively close proximity, bear in mind that conditions
that favor the formation of single storms often allow the formation of many – storms
which may grow and merge rapidly. Aviation weather experts recommend remaining as
far as 20 miles from the biggest storms. Less obvious are so-called embedded
thunderstorms those that overlie a lower cloud layer. When flying beneath clouds, look
50
for signs of convective activity above; rain and hail shafts, lightning and mammatus
clouds are sign of storms above the lower clouds.
B. Mountain Waves
Wind blowing over large obstacles under stable atmospheric conditions can also
produce up and down drafts sufficient to exceed the climb capability of small aircraft.
While the amplitude of mountain waves are dependent on a number of factors including
the height and shape of obstacles, the degree of atmospheric stability and wind speed,
the conditions for mountain wave formation are most favorable when winds of 20-25
knots blow perpendicular to an obstacle such as a mountain range. If sufficient
atmospheric moisture is present, cap clouds or lenticular clouds may be present over
ridges, and may also propagate further downwind. In dry conditions however, these
tell-tale indicators will be absent.
C. Density Altitude
The density of air is dependent upon temperature, pressure and to a lesser degree,
humidity. Pressure decreases with increase in altitude, and temperatures higher than
that standard at a given altitude reduce air density still further. As air density decreases,
airfoils – wings and propellers – become less effective. Normally aspirated, that is nonsupercharged engines produce less power. The effect is that hot weather degrades
overall aircraft performance. Most aircraft used in detection work can operate safely in
a wide range of conditions, but performance on hot days when operating from high
elevation airports may be marginal. Some compromise in operating limitations may
51
have to be made such as reducing fuel load (and by implication, flight duration) or
limiting operations to cooler times of day.
D. Reduced Visibility
Smoke, blowing dust, precipitation and clouds can reduce visibility substantially. While
you may operate legally in most airspace with a visibility of three miles, or in some
places as little as a mile, operating in mountain terrain, perhaps in the presence of other
aircraft in such conditions would be unwise. Let common sense carry the day – don’t fly
where you can’t see!
II.
Flying in Mountain Terrain
When flying in the mountains, always leave yourself a way out! Avoid the
temptation to dip below ridges in narrow canyons where turning room is limited, or
approach rising terrain without an escape route. Don’t let mission focus sucker you
into unsafe situations! If conditions, for whatever reasons are less than ideal or give
you pause, do something else!
52
Aerial Observer
Unit 7 – Aerial Hazards and Risk Management
Objectives:
Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand risk mitigation through planning, hazard recognition and crew
coordination
53
I.
Flight Planning
Some flight planning elements to consider are:

Weather Minima

Visibility

Wind

Flight routes and Alternate Airports

Fuel Management
A. Weather Minima
Adverse weather may cause you to alter or terminate your mission. The presence of
storms along your flight route, high winds, turbulence or diminished visibility may
prevent launch, or result in a diversion while airborne. If either you or your pilot has
reservations about starting or continuing a flight, be prepared to wait out poor
conditions or divert to an alternate airport. The aviation managers on your unit will
generally support any decision to terminate a flight based on marginal conditions.
B. Flight Routes and Alternate Airports
Your safety can be enhanced by becoming familiar with airports along your flight route.
Study of your local sectional chart can pay off here. Knowing likely fuel sources, or
54
airports that can allow you to sit out a spell of bad weather is not just a good idea, but
reflects the thoroughness of your preparation as a flight manager. Many units use local
pilots with an intimate understanding of the patrol area, but adequate preparation
becomes all the more important when flying with non-local pilots. Be thorough in your
sectional chart study. A farmer’s little dirt airstrip might look like Chicago O’Hare if
you’ve got smoke in the cockpit!
C. Fuel Management
Aircraft fuel gauges are notoriously unreliable. Airplane fuel tanks are broad and flat,
and gauging the depth of fuel within, especially while maneuvering can be difficult. A
more reliable measure of fuel burn is duration, or time aloft. For daytime flight under
Visual Flight Rules, pilots are required to carry enough fuel to fly for at least 30 minutes
beyond that necessary to fly to the first point of intended landing. You will be asked to
state fuel duration upon your initial contact with dispatch. Comparing fuel duration
against your take off time will help you track fuel remaining. Despite potentially dire
consequences, fuel exhaustion accidents are far more common than they should be.
Don’t let it happen to you!
II.
Crew Coordination
You and your pilot share responsibility for the safe and efficient conduct of the
mission. As the flight manager, as well as the observer, you are a mission
55
crewmember, not just a passenger. This means not only conducting the aerial
observer mission, but remaining aware of the overall flight environment. Keep an
ear cocked for relevant radio traffic, both from agency units and other aviators.
Scan for smokes, but keep an eye out for other air traffic. Devote a little time to a
quick scan of the cockpit as well. While you can’t be expected to be an expert on
cockpit instrumentation, some obvious anomalies are probably worthy of your
attention. A popped circuit breaker or an instrument needle creeping into the red is
worth pointing out. Be aware of your pilot’s comfort level with the mission. Most
pilots want to do a good job, but be sensitive to signs of unease with potentially
hazardous aspects of the mission. If you sense reluctance to operate close to a
menacing thunderstorm, or if the direct route to your destination airport is obscured
by rain and hail, be prepared to do something else. If you feel the need to alter or
terminate the mission, speak up. Don’t let unspoken expectations paint you into a
corner. Offering prudent mission alternatives is part of your duty as flight manager.
III.
TCAS
An increasing number of aircraft are equipped with a Traffic Collision Avoidance
System. This device displays the relative position of other transponder equipped
aircraft. Bear in mind that many aircraft may not have transponders, or they may be
inoperable. Nonetheless, TCAS offers a great tool to maintain situational awareness.
56
The range of coverage is adjustable, and the display shows relative altitudes of other
aircraft in hundreds of feet. A typical TCAS display is shown below:
Fig. 14
A typical TCAS display
IV.
Hazard Awareness
In addition to watching for hazards that affect your flight, be aware of those hazards
that may impact arriving aircraft or ground units. You probably have the best, if not
the first look at a new fire, so gather what information you can that might help
responding units. A tower or power line may not be a danger to you at your
altitude, but could definitely affect helicopter operations. Routes into the fire area,
57
fuel type changes or barriers ahead of the fire, or indicators of adverse weather that
could impact fire behavior – thunderstorm outflow, shifting winds etc. – are
examples of information useful, if not critical to firefighters. Reporting accurate,
timely information helps lead to better fire management decisions.
58
Aerial Observer
Unit 8 – SAFECOM System
Objectives:
Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand the intent and use of the SAFECOM system
59
I.
SAFECOM System
The Aviation Safety Communiqué System (SAFECOM) provides a voluntary reporting
system for aviation hazards. Its sole purpose is accident prevention, and is not
intended to be punitive in nature. SAFECOM reporting offers a means to identify
hazards and trends that may result in an aviation mishap.
II.
SAFECOM Reporting Protocol
A SAFECOM is intended to report “any condition, observation, act, maintenance
problem, or circumstance with personnel or the aircraft that has the potential to
cause an aviation-related mishap.” This includes incidents resulting in injury or
aircraft damage, but also includes incidents such as airspace intrusions, in-flight
electrical or mechanical problems, communications difficulties and the like.
SAFECOM submission is easy, and can be done on-line at www.safecom.gov.
Instructions are explicit, and a series of drop-down menus will guide you through the
process. Your incident may seem trivial by itself, but when considered with similar
incidents from other units may indicate a larger trend. If you encounter a situation
where you are unclear as to whether a SAFECOM is warranted, your local aviation
personnel can offer guidance.
60
Aerial Observer
Unit 9 -- Documentation
Objectives:
Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand flight time recording, pay documents and record keeping on the
local unit
61
I.
Aircraft Timekeeping
Providing the best value to the using agencies and fair compensation to contractors
depends on accurate timekeeping. Become familiar with the terms of aircraft use
whether using an agency or contract airplane. You may be asked to use one of the
agency timekeeping systems such as AMS or ABS. Standby time will likely be
recorded in clock hours, and flight time in either clock hours or time recorded on a
Hobbs meter (Hobbs is a proprietary name, and there are other meters in use, but
all are generally referred to as Hobbs).
Fig. 15
Hobbs meter
II.
Daily Diary
You may be asked to prepare a daily diary of your operations. This may be in the
form of a prepared document like the NFES 1088 Aircraft Contract Daily Diary, or
some other format. The diary allows recording of duty day and flight operations,
contract or maintenance issues or other relevant details.
62
III.
Cost Summary
You may also be asked to prepare a cost summary, especially when working multiple
incidents on several units in order to correctly allocate payment.
Updated 17 Jan 12
63