Books for teaching Inferring
Creatures of Earth, Sea, and Sky by Georgia Heard
Fireflies by Julie Brinkloe
Fly Away Home by Eve Bunting
For the Good of the Earth and Sun by Georgia Heard
Grandfather Twilight by Barbara Berger
How Many Days to America? By Eve Bunting
If you Listen by Charlotte Zolotow
Miss Maggie by Cynthis Rylant
Mother Earth, Father Sky by Jane Yolen
Oliver Button Is a Sissy by Tomie dePaola
The Royal Bee by Frances Park and Ginger Park
Something Beautiful by Sharon Dennis Wyeth
Where Are You Going, Manyoni? By Catherine Stock
Winter Fox by Catherine Stock
(This is a list generated by Debbie Miller. It is printed in her book Reading with Meaning p.121
http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/inference
How and Why Characters Change Lesson Plans and Graphic
Organizer
http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/inferring-characters-change858.html?tab=3#tabs
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson858/change.pdf
Character Traits Inference Activity
https://learnzillion.com/lessons/936-infer-and-cite-evidence-of-character-traits
Inferencing Handbook-Full of strategies
http://www.rainbowschools.ca/virtual_library/teacher_resources/support/Making-Inferencesbooklet-On-Target.pdf
It Says I Say So…
http://www.readingrockets.org/pdfs/inference-graphic-organizer.pdf
Pre-made Inference Worksheets with reading passages
http://www.ereadingworksheets.com/free-reading-worksheets/reading-comprehensionworksheets/inferences-worksheets/
Inference
Observations occur when we can see something happening. In contrast, inferences are what we
figure out based on an experience. Helping students understand when information is implied, or
not directly stated, will improve their skill in drawing conclusions and making inferences. These
skills will be needed for all sorts of school assignments, including reading, science and social
studies. Inferential thinking is a complex skill that will develop over time and with experience.
Why teach inference?

Inference is a complex skill that can be taught through explicit instruction in inferential strategies

Inferring requires higher order thinking skills, which makes it a difficult skill for many students.
How to teach inference

One simplified model for teaching inference includes the following assumptions:
We need to find clues to get some answers.

We need to add those clues to what we already know or have read.

There can be more than one correct answer.

We need to be able to support inferences.
Marzano (2010) suggests teachers pose four questions to students to facilitate a discussion
about inferences.

What is my inference?
This question helps students become aware that they may have just made an inference by filling
in information that wasn't directly presented.

What information did I use to make this inference?
It's important for students to understand the various types of information they use to make
inferences. This may include information presented in the text, or it may be background
knowledge that a student brings to the learning setting.

How good was my thinking?
According to Marzano, once students have identified the premises on which they've based their
inferences, they can engage in the most powerful part of the process — examining the validity of
their thinking.

Do I need to change my thinking?
The final step in the process is for students to consider possible changes in their thinking. The
point here is not to invalidate students' original inferences, but rather to help them develop the
habit of continually updating their thinking as they gather new information.
One model that teachers can use to teach inference is called "It says, I say, and so" developed
by Kylene Beers (2003). Click below to see graphic organizer examples fromGoldilocks and the
Three Bears, as well as the steps to solving a math problem about area and diameter.
See graphic organizer example >
When to use:
Before reading
During reading
After reading
How to use:
Individually
With small groups
Whole class setting
Examples
Language Arts
The Question-Answer Relationship strategy helps students understand the different types of
questions. By learning that the answers to some questions are "Right There" in the text, that
some answers require a reader to "Think and Search," and that some answers can only be
answered "On My Own," students recognize that they must first consider the question before
developing an answer.
See Question-Answer Relationship strategy >
Into the Book has an interactive activity that helps young children learn about inferring. In the
interactive, students try to infer meaning in letters from virtual pen pals. They try to answer two
questions: "WHERE is your pen pal?" (inferences about location) and "WHO is your pen pal?"
(inferences about personality). Students search for clues in the text, then choose from three
possible inferences for each clue.
See virtual pen pal interactive >
See virtual pen pal teacher guide > (click "Online Activity Teacher Guide")
Riddles are one way to practice inferential thinking skills because successful readers make
guesses based on what they read and what they already know. The object of this online riddle
game is to infer what is being described by the clues you read.
See riddle game >
BrainPop offers several activities for teaching inference, and they offer resources for teachers
and parents.
See inference activities >
Because so many stories contain lessons that the main character learns and grows from, it is
important for students to not only recognize these transformations but also understand how the
story's events affected the characters. This lesson from ReadWriteThink uses a think-aloud
procedure to model how to infer character traits and recognize a character's growth across a
text. Students also consider the underlying reasons of why the character changed, supporting
their ideas and inferences with evidence from the text.
See lesson plan >
Math

The Math Standards from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) identify
standards for PreK-12 students that include developing and evaluating inferences and predictions
that are based on data. For young students, the standards specifically state the following:
Pre-K–2 Expectations: In pre-K through grade 2, all students should discuss events related to
students' experiences as "likely" or "unlikely."

Grades 3–5 Expectations: In grades 3–5, all students should propose and justify conclusions
and predictions that are based on data and design studies to further investigate the conclusions
or predictions.
Science
Science teachers spend time helping students develop their observation skills. Inferring and
observing are closely related, but they are not identical. Observation is what one sees, inference
is an assumption of what one has seen. Observation can be said to be a factual description, and
inference is an explanation to the collected data. It's not a guess. If an observation can be
termed as a close watch of the world around you through the senses, then inference can be
termed as an interpretation of facts that has been observed.

Teachers can start out providing simple observations:
Observation: The grass on the playground is wet.

Possible inferences: It rained. The sprinkler was on. There is morning dew on the grass.

Observation: The line at the water fountain is long.

Possible inferences: It's hot outside. The students just came in from recess.
As you're working to develop these skills, encourage your students to incorporate their scientific
vocabulary into their statements. "From what I observe on the grass, I inferthat…"
Learn more about how to use inference, and other science process skills, to help students
understand our water resources.
More on science process skills >
This strategy guide from Seeds of Science introduces an approach for teaching about how
scientists use evidence to make inferences. The guide includes an introductory section about how
scientists use evidence to make inferences, a general overview of how to use this strategy with
many science texts, and a plan for teaching how scientists gather evidence to make inferences.
See teaching inference strategy guide >
This lesson from ReadWriteThinkuses science to engage students in the process of making
inferences. First, students work through a series of activities about making inferences. Then they
read a booklet of descriptions of a series of mystery objects that are placed under a microscope.
Finally, they look through each microscope and use the formula of schema + text clues =
inference to make their own inferences about the identity of each mystery object.
See science lesson plan >
Social Studies
In this Teacher Guide from the National Portrait Gallery at the Smithsonian, students use clues in
a portrait to infer things about George Washington and his life. They work to identify visual clues
the artist used, they compare various portraits of George Washington, and discuss the
importance of the different portraits as visual records.
See teacher guide >
Often, inferring is introduced to students by using familiar symbols, activities, and environments
from which they automatically draw inferences or make predictions (an inference about the
future). For example, suppose you are about to begin a unit on the Great Depression. You might
have students view a picture of the exterior of a mansion and then of a soup line. Then, through
questioning, students focus on details, making inferences about the people who live in both
places, their socioeconomic status, the kinds of food they eat, the kinds of activities they pursue.
Parents can help to build these skills at home. For ideas to share with parents, see our Growing
Readers tip sheet, Making Inferences and Drawing Conclusions (in English and Spanish).
See parent tip sheet >
Differentiated instruction
for second language learners, students of varying reading skill, students with learning
disabilities, and for younger learners

Use graphic organizers like the It says, I say, So one to make the steps from observation to
inference more explicit.

Model the observation to inference process over and over again, using as many real-life
examples as possible.

Recognize that the background knowledge upon which inferences are drawn will be different for
each student. Reassure students that answers can be different, but all should be made based on
some sort of collected data.
See the research that supports this strategy
Beers, Kylene. (2003). When kids can't read: What teachers can do. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Gregory, A.E., & Cahill, M. (2010, March). Kindergartners Can Do It, Too! Comprehension
Strategies for Early Readers. The Reading Teacher, 63(6), 515-520.
Harvey, Stephanie, & Goudvis, Anne. (2000). Strategies that work (pp. 277-281). York, ME:
Stenhouse.
Marzono, R. (2010). Teaching inference. Educational Leadership, 67(7), 80-01. Available online
at http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/apr10/vol67/num07/TeachingInference.aspx.
Ozgungor, S., & Guthrie, J. T. (2004). Interactions among elaborative interrogation, knowledge,
and interest in the process of constructing knowledge from text. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 96(3), 437-443.
Children's books to use with this strategy
Looking Down by Steve Jenkins
From high above, readers journey from space to earth with a progressively closer view though
always looking down. What viewers are seeing changes with each page turn and may yield
interesting inference on a number of levels (e.g., what else might one see from space?).
Nurse, Soldier, Spy: The Story of Sarah Edmonds, A Civil War Hero by Marissa Moss ,
illustrated by John Hendrix
This lively picture book biography of a woman who disguised herself as a man during the Civil
War introduces a time in U.S. history and a bit of women's history. There are inferential thinking
opportunities in either subject. (For example: From Sarah's experiences, what can be inferred
about women's status in the 19th century? What can be inferred about the status of slaves when
one young enslaved man tells Sarah he can't use cash money?)
I See Myself by Vicki Cobb , illustrated by Julia Gordon
Brief text and clear illustration combine to present both information and experiments that will
encourage "what if" and "what next" discussions that can comfortably and safely combine with
activities appropriate for young children.
Chalk by Bill Thomson
Join three children who find a magical piece of chalk that begins an exciting series of events to
figure out "what next." This might be fun to use in conjunction with Crockett Johnson's Harold &
the Purple Crayon(HarperCollins).
Deep in the Forest by Brinton Turkle
A baby bear explores a human abode in this riff on the Goldilocks tale. Readers could infer
seasons, feelings, and consequences in this modern classic.
What Do You Do with a Tail Like This? by Steve Jenkins , illustrated by Robin Page
Clear, textured illustrations of animals and their special parts (e.g., tail, nose) focus readers on
the special function of each. Not only is it likely to generate a description of the appendage but
its function (what it does), and of the animal and its environment. Other books by Steve Jenkins,
such asBiggest, Strongest, Fastest, may also generate rich descriptive language.
The Little Plant Doctor: A Story About George Washington Carver by Jean Marzollo ,
illustrated by Ken Wilson-Max
George Washington Carver was always curious and grew into a recognized scientist in spite of
the challenges of the time in which he lived. His life and accomplishments become accessible to
younger children through the voice of a tree planted by young George, augmented by child-like
full color illustrations.
Pop! A Book About Bubbles by Kimberly Brubaker Bradley , illustrated by Margaret Miller
Have you ever wondered why bubbles are round? And why they pop? These and other questions
are asked and answered in accessible language and crisp, full color photographs. Many easy-todo science activities are suggested (to be done with adult help).
If America Were a Village: A Book About the People of the United Statesby David Smith ,
illustrated by Shelagh Armstrong (Kids Can, 2009)
If all of the 300 million people were simply one village of 100 people, its diversity is easier to
understand. That's just what the author has done to make the complex make-up of the U.S.
residents (in terms of languages spoken, ages, and more). Colorful illustrations accompany the
understandable text. Additional resources complete the book. If the World Were a Village: A
Book About the World’s People, also by Smith, looks at the inhabitants of the world as a village
to allow its diversity to become more understandable for adults and children.
Wave by Suzy Lee (Chronicle)
No words are needed to share a child's seaside adventure as she plays with the waves, is
knocked down by one, and then discovers the sea's gifts brought to shore by the wave. Softly
lined wash in a limited color palette evoke a summer afternoon on the beach.
Pancakes for Breakfast by Tomie de Paola (Harcourt)
On a cold morning, a little old lady decides to make pancakes for breakfast, but has a hard time
finding all of the ingredients. This wordless picture book tells a story of determination and
humor, ideal for young readers who can narrate the story as they
Question-Answer Relationship (QAR)
The question–answer relationship (QAR) strategy helps students understand the different types
of questions. By learning that the answers to some questions are "Right There" in the text, that
some answers require a reader to "Think and Search," and that some answers can only be
answered "On My Own," students recognize that they must first consider the question before
developing an answer.
Why use question–answer relationship?

It can improve students' reading comprehension.

It teaches students how to ask questions about their reading and where to find the answers to
them.

It helps students to think about the text they are reading and beyond it, too.

It inspires them to think creatively and work cooperatively while challenging them to use
higher-level thinking skills.
How to use question–answer relationship
1. Explain to students that there are four types of questions they will encounter. Define each type
of question and give an example.
Four types of questions are examined in the QAR:
o
Right There Questions: Literal questions whose answers can be found in the text. Often the
words used in the question are the same words found in the text.
o
Think and Search Questions: Answers are gathered from several parts of the text and put
together to make meaning.
o
Author and You: These questions are based on information provided in the text but the
student is required to relate it to their own experience. Although the answer does not lie
directly in the text, the student must have read it in order to answer the question.
o
On My Own: These questions do not require the student to have read the passage but he/she
must use their background or prior knowledge to answer the question.
2. Read a short passage aloud to your students.
3. Have predetermined questions you will ask after you stop reading. When you have finished
reading, read the questions aloud to students and model how you decide which type of
question you have been asked to answer.
4. Show students how find information to answer the question (i.e., in the text, from your own
experiences, etc.).
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson151/guide.pdf
Inferring
Name_________________________________________________________
*Read these sentences and figure out what the underlined words mean.
1. I looked out the window and was surprised to see the snow. The sun
was shining and the snow glistened. It looked like there were millions of
diamonds on the ground.
Glistened means ______________________________________________
What words helped you figure it out?
2. John and Jerry were running down the hall. They knew it was against
the school rules. Mrs. May the principal stopped then
and reprimanded the boys for running in the school.
Reprimanded means _____________________________________________
What words helped you figure it out?
3. My tumbling teacher taught me to do a back flip and the splits. She
said that I was very flexible. It was easy for me to bend backwards. I
could go down in the splits without any trouble.
Flexible means ________________________________________________
What words helped you figure it out?
Inferring
Name ___________________________
*Read this passage:
Pat sat at the front of the table with a big smile on his face. His family and friends sang a song to
him. Then he blew out seven candles on the cake. After they ate the cake, Pat opened the
presents that everyone had given him. He said that this was his favorite day. He thanked
everyone as they left.
*After reading this passage, list 3 things that you inferred about what was happening.
1.____________________________________________________________________
2.____________________________________________________________________
3.____________________________________________________________________
What words helped you figure out what was happening?
*You Be the Detective
Ken reached into his pocket and took out some change. He stood in front of the machine and
looked at the lighted buttons. Then he inserted the coins into the slot and pushed one of the
buttons. When a can fell down into the dispenser, Ken took it out, pulled up the ring on the top
of the can with his finger, and then put the can to his lips.
What is Ken doing? Circle the correct answer.
1. Ken was buying a candy bar at the grocery store.
1. Ken was buying a meal at a fast food restaurant.
1. Ken was buying a can of pop from a vending machine.
What words helped you figure out what he was doing?
Inferring
Name___________________________________________________
*You be the Detective
Jerry scooped up a handful of snow and packed it into a ball. Then he put it down on the ground
and began to push it around the yard. The snowball got bigger and bigger. Then Jerry made
another ball and repeated the procedure. The second ball was smaller than the first. Jerry and
his brother lifted the second snowball on top of the first one. They put an even smaller one on
top of that. Then Jerry got some stones, a carrot, and a knitted scarf and put it onto the top
snowball.
*What was Jerry doing? Circle the correct answer.
1. He was having a snowball fight.
2. He was building a snowman.
3. He was snowboarding.
What helped you figure out what Jerry was doing?
*Read the passage.
Joe went into the garage and got a bucket. He filled it with water and added soap. Then he got a
sponge and dropped it into the bucket. He carried the bucket of soapy water outside and set it
down. Then he took the sponge and began wiping it against his father’s car. When he was done
with the sponge, he took the garden hose and rinsed off the soapy water. Then he put the hose,
bucket and sponge away.
*What was Joe doing? Circle the correct answer.
1. He was washing the sidewalk.
2. He was washing the car.
3. He was washing his bike.
Write down five words that helped you infer what Joe was doing.
______________________________________________________________________________
Inferring
Name _______________________________________________
*Read this passage
Brandon’s mother pushed him in a chair with wheels on it down a sidewalk. There were cages
along the sidewalk. She pushed his chair up to one of the cages. Brandon looked at the
monkeys. They were acting very funny and making lots of noise. Down the sidewalk a little
ways they saw a tiger. He was growling. Brandon told his mother that he was having fun. He
wanted to come back again.
*List 2 things that you inferred about Brandon and where he was.
*What helped you figure out where Brandon was?
*Read this passage.
The room was very small. Karl sat in a chair facing a window. The window had a hole in it to
talk through. He was wearing a uniform. When it was evening, the people walked up to the
window and ask Karl for something. He would ask them if they wanted one for an adult or a
child. They would give him some money and he would give them what they asked for. From
where Karl was sitting he could smell the popcorn as it popped. He could see the people
buying the popcorn. He liked working here.
*From this passage what did you infer about Karl and what he was doing?
*What words helped you figure out what Karl was doing?
Inferring
Name______________________________________________
*Read these sentences and figure out the meaning of the underlined word.
1. I was so excited because it was Christmas Eve. I walked down the stairs and peered into
the front room. I could see the Christmas tree lights and all the presents that Santa had left for
us.
Peered means to ________________________________________________________
What words helped you figure it out?__________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. My friend fell and broke his leg. It was urgent that he be taken to the hospital. The
ambulance came very fast and soon he was on his way.
Urgent means _____________________________________________________________
What words helped you figure it out?
3. We hurried to the bus to find a seat. We looked around and all the seats were occupied.
There were already many people standing. We didn’t know what to do.
Occupied means _____________________________________________________________
What words helped you figure it out?
______________________________________________________________________________
Name___________________________________________________
Inferring for meaning with poetry
_____________________________________________________________________________
I am a ______________________
___________________________
I swim in the sea,
Flipping and shining.
___________________________
Can you see me?
Now you do
___________________________
And now you don’t
Try and catch me-
___________________________
You won’t, you won’t!
I jump in the air
____________________________
And feel so free,
Twisting and turning
____________________________
Can you see me?
Now you do,
_____________________________
And now you don’t
Try and catch me-
______________________________
You won’t, you won’t
______________________________________________________________________________
I am inferring that _____________________________________________________________
(Debbie Miller – “Reading with Meaning” page 114)
Inferring
We are learning about inferring as a comprehension strategy proficient readers use to better
understand their reading.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Book “Where Are You Going Manyoni” by Catherine Stock
_____________________________________________________________________________
We predict she is going . . .
_____________________________________________________________________________
We inferred unknown words like. . .
_____________________________________________________________________________
Word
What we infer its meaning
What helped us
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
_____________________________________________________________________________
What did we learn?
(Debbie Miller – “Reading with Meaning” page109)
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