CSc 375
SOCIAL ISSUES IN COMPUTING
Department of Computer Science
City College of New York
Spring 2006
Copyright © 2006 by Abbe Mowshowitz
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
A. Introduction: case electronic voting
U.S.
Touch screens
INDIA
Buttons & paper slips
Paper trails
Cannot be
reprogrammed/shuts
down if opened
Name assigned to
button at poll
1 jurisdiction
Networking
50 jurisdictions
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
A. Introduction (cont.)
1. Indian machine:
- voter shows paper ID card
- casts ballot by pressing one of the buttons
- light glows red and beep emitted
- official can shut down system with override
- carried physically to counting center (limiting
chances of widespread tampering)
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
A. Introduction (cont.)
2. U.S. machines:
- MS Windows operating system
- back up servers
- voice guidance systems
- PMCIA storage cards
- millions of lines of code
- etc.
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
A. Introduction (cont.)
3. Comparison
- US system vulnerable to wholesale fraud
- Indian system limits fraud since
assignment of buttons to candidates
is done locally
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
A. Introduction (cont.)
4. Dimensions of difference
- wealth
- technological capacity
- number of electoral jurisdictions
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
A. Introduction (cont.)
5. Another example
NASA’s multimillion dollar Astronaut Pen
vs. the ordinary Soviet pencil
TYPE OF TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPED
AND DEPLOYED DEPENDS ON
SOCIAL CONDITIONS AND VALUES
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
B. Factors constraining application
1. Overview: three kinds of constraints
- intrinsic features (IF)
- accidental features (AF)
- technocultural paradigms (TP)
Universe
Of potential
applications
IF
AF
TP
Realizable
Applications
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
B. 2. Intrinsic features
- properties of computer hardware,
software, systems and networks
- requirements for production and
deployment of computer technology
E.g., until advent of packet switching,
networking applications were not
feasible
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
B. 3. Accidental features
Social context of computer use:
activities of individuals and groups
that influence the ways computers
are used
E.g., public and private organizations
build computerized personal record
systems that threaten privacy
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
B. 4. Technocultural paradigms
Values and cultural orientations that
create predispositions toward
particular uses of technology
E.g., belief in desirability of progress
provides rationale for use of
technology to stimulate growth and
change
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
C. Voting machine example re-visited
1. Intrinsic features: technology and financial
resources
2. Accidental features:
- electoral districts & nature of threats
- vested interests in voting machines
3. Technocultural paradigms: addiction to
gadgetry
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
D. Other examples
1. Wireless Internet
a. Japan
- about 63 m mobile Internet users
- 60% use iMode platform (compact HTML)
-- NTT DoCoMo (leading cellular company)
-- always on using packet switching
-- 9.6 to 28.8 Kbps; $0.27/100 128B packets
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
D.1. Wireless Internet
b. US & Europe
- US: fragmented set of mobile network
& service standards
- Europe: slow adoption of wireless
Internet based on WAP
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
D.1.c. Analysis of iMode use in Japan
- Internet access without PC
- comfortable for wireless users
- low initial cost allows trial use
- publicity: visible use of phones
- established brand/upscale image
- group conformity
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
D.1.d. Economic & technological
issues in Japan
- NTT DoCoMo is market leader
- vertical integration
- network investment
- self-reinforcing services
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
D.1.e. US marketplace
- fragmentation & competition in Wireless
industry
- lack of vertical integration
- Internet usage is already high
DIFFERENCES EXPLAIN LACK OF
IMODE SUCCESS IN THE US
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
D.2. Software development approaches
a. Capability Maturity Model (CMM)
- incorporates best practices
- represents mainstream thinking in
software engineering: transform SD
from ‘handicraft’ to ‘factory’ system
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
D.2. Software development approaches
b. Critique of CMM
- SD is environment specific
- depends on individuals doing
specific tasks
- not repetitive in machine-like sense
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
D.2. Software development approaches
c. Role of technocultural paradigms
- CMM: objectivity & factory
- alternative: subjectivity & handicraft
PARADIGM INFLUENCES APPROACH
TO SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
E. Concrete historical circumstances of
computer use
1. Contemporary conditions
- trend toward centralization of control
- imbalance: corporations & governments
vs. communities & individuals
- influence of vested interests backed by
substantial resources
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
E. Concrete historical circumstances of
computer use
2. Implications of market economy
- technology may be owned
-- premature deployment
-- second best technology
- vested interests militate against change
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
E. Concrete historical circumstances of
computer use
3. Reinforcement politics
- those in power resist efforts to share
- computer applications that could
distribute power have little chance of
success
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
E. Concrete historical circumstances of
computer use
4. Tyranny of paradigms
- assembly teams vs. assembly lines
- large factory vs. networks of small
producers (e.g., experience of
industrial districts in Italy)
TOPIC 6. CONSTRAINTS
ON COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
E. Concrete historical circumstances of
computer use
5. Large scale systems & legal protections
- once installed, systems acquire
‘champions’
- unintended uses may come into play
- forbidden uses may become acceptable
- law as well as custom may change
* examples in later topics