Significant Foreign and Domestic Policy of the 1790s
PRESIDENT GEORGE WASHINGTON’S ADMINISTRATION (1789-1797)
The French Revolution (1789-1799)
Americans generally supported the French people’s desire to establish a republic, but many were also horrified by the reports of mob
hysteria and mass executions. To complicate matters, the US-French alliance remained in effect, although it was an alliance with the
French monarchy, and not with the revolutionary republic. Jefferson and his supporters, the Democratic-Republicans, sympathized
with the revolutionary cause. They also argued that because Britain was seizing American merchant ships bound for French ports,
the US should join France in its defensive war against Britain.
Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation of 1793
When France declared war against Great Britain in 1793, Americans were divided over sympathies to each country: France was the
US’ ally in the American Revolution, and many wanted to encourage emerging republican values in the French Revolution, but Great
Britain was our long-established trade partner. President Washington’s two leading advisors, Thomas Jefferson and Alexander
Hamilton differed over which country to support. Washington believed that the US couldn’t sustain itself if it was dragged into the
war between Britain and France, so he issued a proclamation of American neutrality, which also allowed the US to trade with both
sides. Both Great Britain and France tried to test American neutrality (recall French diplomat Genet, British impressments of
American sailors, etc.).
The Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794)
Through the final decades of the 18th century, settlers moved steadily westward into the Ohio Valley and beyond. To resist the
settlers’ encroachment on their lands, several tribes formed the Northwest (or Western) Confederacy. Initially, the tribes won a
series of bloody victories over the local militia. Americans on the frontier were incensed by evidence that the British were supplying
the American Indians with arms, and encouraging them to attack the “intruding” Americans. In 1794, General Anthony Wayne led the
US army to defeat the Confederacy tribes at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in northwestern Ohio. The next year, the chiefs of the
defeated peoples surrendered claims to the Ohio Territory and promised to open it up to settlement.
Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
Farmers in southwestern Pennsylvania protested the federal excise tax on distilled whiskey. Washington personally led 15,000
troops against the rebels, who quickly dispersed, demonstrating the power of the new government to suppress rebellion (in contrast
to Shay’s Rebellion). The Federalists argued that the Republicans and secret French agents promoted the civil unrest. Republicans
claimed that the episode was an excuse by the Federalists to intimidate Republicans.
Jay’s Treaty (1794)
The British had kept forts on American soil, blocked US ships from French ports, and captured several hundred American vessels in
the West Indies (without any warning of a change in policy). President Washington sent John Jay to negotiate a treaty. US demands
included the removal of British forts from US territory, payment for ships taken in the West Indies, improved commercial relations,
and acceptance of American neutrality. The British agreed to nothing except removing the forts. In fact, the British would continue to
search American ships and to impress sailors suspected of being British. This pro-British, Federalist-supported treaty outraged many
Americans (who thought Jay was a sell-out) and solidified the Republicans hostility towards the Federalists.
Pinckney’s Treaty (1795)
Spain made concessions to the US (access to Miss. R. and the port of New Orleans without paying duties, a secure Florida boundary,
and a promise to stay out of Indian affairs) because Spain feared that Jay’s Treaty indicated the US and Britain had formed an alliance
to strip Spain of its North American possessions. The result for the US was that farm produce from the South and West got to markets
more quickly.
Washington’s Farewell Address (1796)
Although he claimed to stand above party, by supporting Hamilton’s economic program, signing Jay’s Treaty, and suppressing the
Whiskey Rebellion, most Americans thought of Washington as a Federalist. He declined to run for a third term, establishing the twoterm tradition. In his Farewell Address, published in newspapers across the country, Washington, ironically, warned against factions
and encouraged political leaders to work together. He also counseled the US to avoid any permanent alliances with foreign nations.
This view marks the beginning of American isolationist policy.
Election of 1796
John Adams (Federalist) defeated Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican) for the presidency. Jefferson received the second most
electoral votes and became the vice president, putting two different parties in the offices of president and vice president. To prevent
political opponents from serving together, the 12th Amendment (ratified in 1804) requires the president and vice-president to run as
a team.
PRESIDENT JOHN ADAMS’ ADMINISTRATION (1797-1801)
XYZ Affair (1797)
Angered by Jay’s Treaty and the apparent siding of the US with Great Britain, the French began seizing American
ships, which resulted in a “quasi-war.” A US delegation went to Paris to negotiate, but some French assistant
diplomats (labeled “X,” “Y,” and “Z”) demanded a loan and attempted to bribe the Americans in order to settle the
dispute. Members of the Federalist Party were outraged and ended the long-term alliance between the two
countries. The Federalists pushed for a war against France, but President Adams, despite his Federalist Party
affiliations, believed, like Washington before him, that neutrality was critical for American stability. Although
Adams refused to support a war, the Federalists in Congress pushed through legislation to establish both a navy
and an army (that could also be used to stifle internal, Republican opposition).
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)
When the pro-French Democratic-Republican Party politicians began to launch harsh attacks in the press against
the President, Federalists responded by passing a group of bills that authorized the federal courts and the
president to silence the Republicans. Since most immigrants voted Democratic-Republican, the Federalists passed
the Naturalization Act, which increased from 5 years to 14 years the years required for immigrants to qualify for
US citizens. In addition, the Alien Act allowed the president to deport aliens he deemed dangerous to the peace and
safety of the US. The Sedition Act made criticizing the president or Congress a crime worthy of fines or
imprisonment. A congressman and 24 newspapers editors were arrested for sedition (malicious writings
criticizing the government). The Democratic-Republicans believed these laws undermined the First Amendment,
and so were unconstitutional and should be repealed.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolution (1798)
Believing that the Federalists were violating guaranteed rights, Jefferson and Madison drafted separate protests
asserting that the state governments could nullify (or throw out) laws passed by the national government
(Congress) when they were deemed unconstitutional. They argued that if the states had created the federal
government, they had the right to judge its actions and nullify its legislation accordingly. This was an assertion of
“states rights.”
Adam’s Finest Hour (1799)
Adams infuriated the Federalists when he accepted the French apology for the XYZ Affair, fired the Secretary of
State and the Secretary of War, and dismantled the expensive army. He also signed treaties with France’s Napoleon
in 1800, establishing mutual trust between the two countries and avoiding a war.
“Revolution of 1800”
Because the Federalists were largely divided over Adam’s actions, the Democratic-Republicans prevailed in the
elections, gaining a majority in Congress and winning the presidency with the election of Thomas Jefferson (after
36 votes in the House of Representatives when there was a tie in the electoral college – and only after Hamilton
convinced some Federalists to support Jefferson over Burr). Jefferson considered the election of 1800 a
“revolution” because it was the first peaceful transfer of power from one political party to another and because he
believed it marked a return to the principles on which the nation had been founded. In his inauguration, Jefferson
said, “We are all Republicans; we are all Federalists,” suggesting that ALL Americans shared a commitment to a
federal union and to republican ideals.
Judiciary Act of 1801
The “lame-duck” Federalist Congress attempted to leave their mark by passing the Judiciary Act of 1801 before the
Democratic-Republicans were inaugurated, expanding the number of federal judgeships. Adams appointed loyal
Federalists to the new judgeships before Jefferson’s inauguration. Republicans were disgusted by this last-minute
attempt to entrench Federalists in government. These “midnight judges,” or last-minute appointments, created
additional strife between the two political parties.