Chapter 8
From Surveillance
to
Records and Files
2
SURVEILLANCE: OBSERVING THE
SCENE
“Follow that car!”
• What is surveillance?
– The underlying principle of surveillance is watching and following
others.
• Surveillance
– The secret observation of people, groups, places, vehicles, and
things over a prolonged period in an effort to gather information
about a crime or criminal behavior.
– Unlike other aspects of police work, for which the officer can
prepare and plan, surveillance depends largely on the actions of
the subject.
– When conducting surveillance without advance knowledge of the
subject’s plans and activities, officers must simply wait, watch,
and respond.
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3
The Purpose of Surveillance
• In general, surveillance is used to obtain
information—about people, their friends and
associates, and activities—that may assist in
solving a criminal case, protecting a witness, or
locating a fugitive.
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4
The Purpose of Surveillance
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Gather information to develop a criminal case
Detect or prevent crime
Detect and prevent terrorist attacks
Locate a wanted fugitive
Learn about various contacts and associates of a particular
suspect or group
• Gain information sufficient to establish probable cause for
issuance of a search or arrest warrant
• Discover the activities and movements of suspected
individuals
• Verify statements made by witnesses or informants
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5
The Purpose of Surveillance
• Observe and monitor communications of known
members of terrorist organizations
• Recover stolen property
• Intercept criminals in the act of committing a crime
• Prevent a crime from being committed
• Develop intelligence on criminals and criminal
organizations
• Develop intelligence on terrorists and terrorist
organizations
• Obtain information to use during an interrogation
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6
Preparing for Surveillance
• The personnel and equipment needed and the
type of surveillance (loose, tight, stationary, or
moving) must be determined in advance.
• The use of code words, methods of summoning
aid, methods of entrance and exit from the
surveillance location, dress, and safety
precautions should all be considered.
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7
TYPES OF SURVEILLANCE
•
There are a number of different types of
surveillance strategies. Two of the broadest
categories are:
1. Fixed, or stationary surveillance
2. Moving, or mobile surveillance
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8
Fixed Surveillance
• Fixed, or stationary,
surveillance
– Close watch on a subject
or object from a single
location and vantage
point, such as a building
or vehicle.
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9
Fixed Surveillance
• Fixed surveillances, or stakeouts, are usually limited in
their duration.
• When establishing a fixed surveillance, the primary
requirement is good visibility of the suspect or location
being watched.
• The goal of fixed surveillance is more often to gather
information than to seize a suspect.
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10
Moving Surveillance
• Moving surveillance
– The observation of a subject while moving on foot, in a
vehicle, or in an aircraft.
• Foot Surveillance
– There are three major types of foot surveillance:
• one-investigator, two-investigator, and three-investigator
surveillance
• ABC surveillance
– A three-officer foot surveillance in which officer A follows the
subject and in turn is followed by officer B. The third
surveillant, officer C, normally walks on the other side of the
street parallel to subject.
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11
ABC Foot Surveillance Method
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12
Moving Surveillance
• Leading surveillance
– Type of mobile surveillance where the surveillant walks
ahead of the subject.
– The three-investigator procedure can be very effective, and
having a fourth officer standing by in a car can be even more
effective.
• Vehicle Surveillance
– Close surveillance
• Surveillance conducted while remaining very close in proximity to the
subject.
– The officer should stay as close to the suspect as possible
without becoming conspicuous.
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13
Moving Surveillance
• Vehicle Surveillance
– Vehicles used for surveillance should be plain and
nondescript and fit into the flow of traffic without
being noticed.
– Mobile surveillance may be undertaken with one,
two, or several cars.
– Perimeter box surveillance
• A vehicle surveillance technique that allows surveillants to
maintain coverage even if the subject suddenly turns at
an intersection.
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14
Perimeter Box Surveillance Method
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15
Moving Surveillance
Electronic Vehicle Tracking
• In some situations police may attach a bumper beeper
or similar global positioning system (GPS) device.
• A warrant is not necessary to secretly attach a device
to a car provided the car is parked in a public place at
the time.
• United States v. Knotts (1983)
– “A person traveling in an automobile on public thoroughfares
has no reasonable expectation of privacy in his movements
from one place to another.”
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16
Moving Surveillance
Aerial Surveillance
• Warrants are not required to undertake aerial
surveillance over public or private property.
• United States v. Causby (1946)
• The Supreme Court ruled that the sky is a “public
highway.”
• When law enforcement officers conduct aerial
surveillance, they are free to use binoculars, camera
equipment, or other surveillance technologies to
enhance their vision from the air.
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17
Moving Surveillance
Thermal Imaging
• Forward-looking infrared devices (FLIRs), are
typically mounted under aircraft and used to
detect heat sources.
• The most common uses are nighttime highspeed pursuits and to locate fugitives who are
evading efforts of officers on the ground to find
them.
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18
Technological Advances in
Surveillance
• A wide variety of sophisticated devices are available to
enhance the senses of sight and hearing.
Audio Surveillance
• Provisions for using electronic listening devices can be
traced to the landmark case of Katz v. United States
(1967).
– Electronic surveillance and wiretapping are permitted only with
probable cause and by court order.
– Title III of the Omnibus Crime
Control and Safe Street Act of
1968
– Patriot Act and the Patriot Act II
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19
Technological Advances in
Surveillance
Video Surveillance
• Advances in microminiaturization, high resolution and
digitized imaging, and satellite video capabilities, many
law enforcement agencies are now able to take
advantage of video surveillance.
• Facial recognition systems
– Computer-based security systems that are able to
automatically detect and identify human faces.
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20
TIPS FOR SURVEILLANCE OPERATIONS
• Blend in
• Engage in conventional activities
• Convoy
– Following a subject using multiple surveillants in
tandem.
• See Figure 8.5 (page 165)
– Countermeasures used to detect surveillance
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21
RECORDS AND FILES
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Preliminary reports of criminal incidents
Follow-up reports
Offense and arrest records
Modus operandi files
Missing persons reports
Gun registrations
Wanted bulletins and updates
Surveillance reports
Various officers’ personal information files
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22
Sample Surveillance Form
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23
Linking People to Records
• A number of obvious records contain
information about people, and they may aid in
the search for a fleeing felon or suspect.
• These include fingerprint and photograph files
and modus operandi files.
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24
Tracing and Locating People
• Skipping
– Fleeing the area
• Remember humans are creatures of comfort and habit.
• Residences of a parent, a sibling, or a close relative
living in the area.
– Forwarding address
– Utilities
• With a little bit of thought, investigators can find
numerous sources of records to assist them in tracing a
missing suspect.
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25
Types and Sources of Recorded
Information
• Law Enforcement Agencies
– Criminal jackets
• Official police records of criminals
• Federal Agencies
– Federal agencies with files of information on people include these major
agencies:
•
•
•
•
FBI
DEA
the U.S. Marshals Service
the Treasury Department, which includes the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
and Firearms (ATF) and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
– In addition, investigators might contact:
• the Department of Homeland Security and sub departments such as:
– Customs and Border Protection
– Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
– the U.S. Secret Service and the U.S. Postal Service
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26
Types and Sources of Recorded
Information
State and Local Agencies
• Most regulatory and licensing powers are in the hands
of state agencies.
– Fishing license
– Motor vehicle registry
Public Records Offices and Business Organizations
• Housing
• Credit
• Various business dealings
• Social or recreational activities
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27
Types and Sources of Recorded
Information
Miscellaneous Sources and Files
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public libraries
libraries on college and university campuses
auto rental and leasing agencies
city directories
the chamber of commerce
hospitals
hotels
taxi and livery companies
travel agencies
moving companies
Internet sources (such as USA People Search)
Copyright ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.