Chapter 4
Early Societies in South Asia
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Harappan society and its neighbors,
ca. 2000 B.C.E.
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Foundations of Harappan Society
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The Indus River
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Major society built by Dravidian peoples, 3000-2500
BCE
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Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges
Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early cultivation of
poultry
Decline after 1900 BCE
Major cities: Harappa (Punjab region and Mohenjo-Daro
(mouth of Indus River)
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70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)
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Mohenjo-Daro Ruins
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Population c. 40,000
Regional center
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Layout, architecture suggests public purpose
Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage
Standardized weights evident throughout region
Specialized labor
Trade
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Harappan Society and Culture
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Evidence of social stratification
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Harappan Civilization: matriarchal?
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Dwelling size, decoration
Influence on later Indian culture
Goddesses of fertility
Possible east/west distinctions
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Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization
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Reasons for disappearance unclear
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Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil
Earthquakes?
Flooding?
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Evidence of unburied dead
Disappearance by 1500 BCE
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The Aryan “Invasion”
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Aryans, lighter-skinned invaders from the north
Dravidians, darker-skinned sedentary inhabitants of
Harappa
Color Bias
Socio-Economic Implications
Difficulty of theory: no evidence of large-scale military
conquest
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The Early Aryans
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Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle
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Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries
later
Religious and Literary works: The Vedas
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Sanskrit: sacred tongue
Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi,
Urdu, Bengali
Four Vedas, most important Rig Veda
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1,028 hymns to gods
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The Vedic Age
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Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous dasas
(“enemies,” “subjects”)
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Chiefdoms: Rajas
Early concentration in Punjab, migrations further south
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Aryans fighting Dravidians
Also Aryans fighting each other
Development of iron metallurgy
Increasing reliance on agriculture
Tribal connections evolve into political structures
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Varna: The Caste System
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Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians
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Brahmin, Priest
Kshatriya, Warrior
Vaishya, Merchant
Shudra, Commoner
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Harijan: “Untouchables; Pariahs”
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Jati subsystem of castes
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Related to urbanization, increasing social and
economic complexity
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Brahmins from Bengal
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Patriarchy in Ancient Indian Society
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“rule of the father”
Enforced in The Lawbook of Manu
Overwhelmed Harappan matriarchy?
Caste, Jati, inheritance through male line
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Sati (“Suttee”)
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Aryan Religion
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Major deity of Rig Veda: Indra, war god
Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods
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Role of Brahmins important
C. 800 BCE some movement away from
sacrificial cults
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Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians
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Teachings of the Upanishads
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Texts that represent blending of Aryan and
Dravidian traditions
Composed 800-400 BCE, some later collections
until 15th century CE
Brahman: the Universal Soul
Samsara: reincarnation
Karma: accounting for incarnations
Moksha: mystical ecstasy
Relationship to system of Varna
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