Human Development
A Cultural Approach
Chapter
12
Late Adulthood
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Physical Development
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Cultural Beliefs about Late
Adulthood
• Perception of late adulthood
 Asian, African, and Latin cultures have
favorable view
 Western culture views becoming favorable
- Still combat some ageism
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Cultural Beliefs about Late
Adulthood
• Substages of late adulthood
 Young-Old—65-74
 Old-Old—75-84
 Oldest-Old—85 and up
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Cultural Beliefs about Late
Adulthood
• Perception of late adulthood
• Each substage is different regarding
physical, cognitive, and social
functioning
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Cultural Beliefs about Late
Adulthood
• Differ in performing activities of daily
living (ADL’s) and reported health
 1/3 of people over 80 say health is good
 Less than ½ of 85-89 year olds have a
disability
• Functional age may be better concept
to use than chronological age
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Global Aging Pattern
• Old-Age Dependency Ratio (OADR)
 Number of persons aged 65 or older
Number of persons aged 20-64
• Bottom number represent work force
who pay into government
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Global Aging Pattern
• Top number represents those not in
workforce but receive government
benefits
• OADR increase means more people
receiving benefits and not enough
paying in to cover
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Global Aging Pattern
• Reasons for climbing OADR
 Birth rate peaked (represent workforce)
 Medical care increases longevity
• Some gender differences in life
expectancy
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Physical Changes
• Hair continues to gray and thin
• Bones thin especially in women
• Age spots develop—sun exposure
hastens development
• Height and weight decline
• Teeth yellow
• Exercise and healthy diet can slow
some appearance changes
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Changes in Senses
• Vision
 Reduced visual acuity
 Cataracts
-
Most common visual impairment
 Increased chance of Macular Degeneration
 Increased chance of Glaucoma
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Changes in Senses
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Changes in Senses
• Hearing
 Acuity diminishes for high-pitched sounds
 May develop tinnitus
 Can lead to social isolation
• Taste and smell
 Decline in taste and smell can make food
less enjoyable
 Dangerous smells not detected
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Physical Changes
Changes in Sleep
• Quality of sleep declines with age
 Sleep less deeply
 Time in light sleep increases
• Sleep Apnea common sleep problem
 Can be treated with CPAP device
• Psychological issues can also impair
sleep
 Depression, anxiety, and medical conditions
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Health in Late Adulthood
Chronic Health Problems
• Common health issues are: arthritis
osteoporosis, and hypertension
• Arthritis—disease of the joints
 Cartilage that cushions joints wear out
 Women affected more than men
- Management involves medication, inserting
new joints and/or exercise
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Health in Late Adulthood
Chronic Health Problems
• Osteoporosis
 Increased risk for broken bones
 Exercise and calcium-rich diet for
treatment
• Hypertension
 Secondary aging makes condition worsen
 Diet and medications are treatment
options
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Health in Late Adulthood
Health Care and Health Promotion
• Medical intervention can combat health
problems
• Developed countries allow access to
healthcare
• Rising OADR will cause future financial
strain
• Healthy lifestyle can help
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Figure 12.3
Use of Medical Resources by Age Group Persons age 65 and over consume far more
medical resources than persons in other age groups. Source: OECD (2009)
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Health in Late Adulthood
Health Care and Health Promotion
• Healthy lifestyle includes:
 Healthy diet—low fat and sugar, taking
multivitamins
 Regular exercise—lowers risk of disease,
increases muscle and bone mass
- Aerobic and strength training beneficial
 Avoid smoking and alcohol
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Cognitive Development
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Cognitive Changes and Decline
Changes in Attention and Memory
• Declines in
 Selective Attention
 Divided Attention
 Sustained Attention
• Memory effects include
 Working memory decline
 Episodic and autobiographical memory
decline
 Source memory decline
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Cognitive Changes and Decline
Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease
• Biological brain changes include
 Brain mass decline
 Spaces within brain increase
- Hippocampus, cerebellum, frontal lobes
 Neurotransmitters decline
- Acetylcholine and dopamine
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Cognitive Changes and Decline
Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease
• Aging increases risk of dementia
 Alzheimer’s disease most common
- Loss of memory for recent events including
people
- increased anxiety and aggression
 Two features include
- Accumulation of plaques
- Neurofibrillary tangles
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Cognitive Changes and Decline
Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease
• Risk factors include
 Gene
- ApoE gene or all onset but may not
determine developing Alzheimer’s
 Diet
• Protective factors include
 Cognitive activity
 Physical exercise
 Diet
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Alternative Views on
Cognitive Changes Wisdom
• Wisdom—expertise in the conduct and
meaning of life
 Includes insight, knowledge, strategies,
values, and awareness
• Current research
 No clear link to age and being wise
 Future research may examine cultural
differences
 Impact of culture’s rates of social change
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Alternative Views on Cognitive Changes
Dealing with Cognitive Decline
• Late-life learning
 Regular mental exercise slows cognitive
decline
• Selective Optimization with
Compensation (SOC)
 Selecting valued activities
 Optimize performances in those activities
 Compensating for decline by using new
strategies
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Alternative Views on Cognitive Changes
Dealing with Cognitive Decline
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Emotional and Social
Development
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Figure 12.4
Age and Emotional States In the course of late adulthood, positive affect rises
steadily. Source: Mroczek (2001)
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Emotional and Self-Development
Theories on Emotions in Late Adulthood
• Erikson’s—Ego integrity vs. despair
 Ego integrity—looking back on one’s life
and accepting outcome
 Despair—regrets and bitterness about the
course of one’s life
• Physical and cognitive problems can
impact self-esteem and integrity
 Depression can increase risk of despair
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Emotional and Self-Development
Theories on Emotions in Late Adulthood
• Socioemotional Selectivity Theory—
maximize emotional well-being by
becoming increasingly selective with
social contacts
 Goals change
- Knowledge based
- Emotion based
• Older adults seek relationships low in
conflict and high in mutual enjoyment
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of
Development Family Relationships
• Contact with adult children continue
into late adulthood
• Asian cultures believe in Filial Piety
 Obligation to parents and provide care with
age
 Assistance flows from children to parents
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of
Development Family Relationships
• Western cultures
 Assistance flows from parents to children
• Gender differences
 Daughters provide more care
 Sons financial
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of
Development Family Relationships
• Relationships with grandchildren are
positive
 Closeness and affection remain strong
 Gender differences
- Closer to grandmother than grandfather
 Great grandchildren signal family
endurance
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of Development
Living Arrangements in Late Adulthood
• Western countries
 Living independently
- Northern Europe—Independent
- Southern Europe—Live with child
 Living facilities
- Assisted living and nursing homes
- Personal control important
• Asian countries
 Living independently or with adult child
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of
Development Love and Sexuality
• Marital satisfaction at peak
 Divorce would have occurred earlier
leaving strongest marriages
 Fewer daily responsibilities that cause
stress
 More time to enjoy leisure activities
 Solve disagreements calmly
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of
Development Love and Sexuality
• Depression and loneliness follows losing
a spouse
• Widows more common than widowers
• Social contact important for recovery
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of
Development Love and Sexuality
• Sexual behavior expectations differ by
culture
• Activity relies on partner availability
and physical health
• With assistance some problems
correctable
 Women—lubrication, Men—medication for
erectile dysfunction
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of
Development Love and Sexuality
• Intimate acts more common than
sexual intercourse
• Masturbation remains common
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
Figure 12.6 Sexuality in Middle and Late Adulthood In American society, many adults age 45
and over take part in a variety of sexual activities. This figure shows the percentage of adults engaging
in sexual activities once a week or more often within the past six months. Source: Based on AARP
(2009)
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of
Development Work and Retirement
• Median retirement age is 60–63
• Longer life expectancies increase
retirement age
• Retiring impacted by
 Finances, physical health, and job
satisfaction
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of
Development Work and Retirement
• Satisfaction highest if retirement by
choice
• May retire gradually but not for money
 Social contact and remaining active
• May have problems in obtaining work
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of Development
Life Outside of Work and Home
• Time devoted to leisure activities,
community activities, and religious
involvement
• Leisure activities
 Increased time to continue previous
interests
 Increased travel if able
 Time spent doing non-demanding activities
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of Development
Life Outside of Work and Home
• Community service and civic
engagement
• Enhance well being of future
generations
• Efforts increase social well-being
• Enhance seniors well-being
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of Development
Life Outside of Work and Home
• Religious involvement
 Participation increases
 Practices and beliefs increase
 Women more religious than men but men
hold dominate positions
 Promotes self esteem, life satisfaction, and
overall happiness
 Promotes better physical health
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
The Sociocultural Contexts of Development
Life Outside of Work and Home
• Television, movies, reading, music
compose 40% of leisure time
• Television use increases throughout life
• Impacts globalization
• Internet use lowest in later adulthood
 Can have positive outcomes if taught to
use internet
Human Development: A Cultural Approach
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett