The Plains Natives
Plains Natives territory
The territory of the Plains Natives in
Canada ranged from the Rocky
Mountains to the woodlands of
Southeastern Manitoba. The
Natives lived in what today is called
the southern part of Alberta,
Saskatchewan and Manitoba.
The Plains Natives who lived in the
southern part of the prairie
provinces marked the very
northern limit of the plains Natives
region. Most of their territory was
further south in the United States.
All of the Plains Natives had
similarities, but not all of the plains
Natives were the same. There were
many different names like the
Blackfoot , Cree and Sioux which all
had different languages, customs
and traditions. The three languages
spoken in Canada were Algonquian,
Athabascan and Siouan
Plains geography
The great plains are dominated by flat
ground covered with either low or high
grass. Trees are uncommon in most of
the area. Water can be scarce in the
summer, although there are a few
large rivers .(Assiniboine,
Saskatchewan River, Red River etc.)
and small lakes in this region.
Weather in the great plains can be
extremes. The winters are very cold
with temperatures dropping to -40
degrees Celsius. The summers can be
very hot with temperatures reaching
35 degrees Celsius.
There are large herds of buffalo, deer,
antelope, along with bears, cougars,
coyotes. Many of these animals move
around in the summer looking for food
and water.
The area has smaller animals like jack
rabbits, prairie dogs, small herbivores,
grouse, geese, ducks, cranes, and
eagles.
Prairie dog
Prairie animals
deer
Buffalo herd
antelope
Plains Natives housing
The pine tipi (teepee) poles used to
make the tipis were precious, because
wood was scarce, since there were so
few trees in the plains. The tipi poles
were carefully protected and carried
from place to place usually on a horse
travois. A travois was a few poles on
each side of the horse that other
objects were attached to. The poles
were simply dragged behind the horse.
The teepee
Most plains Natives were nomadic, so
they needed a house that could be
build and taken down and moved
quickly. A teepee was a tall, cone-like
structure made from animal hides. It
was waterproof and very durable.
The tipi was warm in winter and cool
in summer. Light filtered in through
the top to fill the interior.
Fur line hides covered the ground,
keeping it warm.
The head of the family always sat
opposite to the door flap.
Triangular back rests made with willow
and bound together with cord, made
sitting more comfortable.
The hearth fire was built just behind
the centre of tipi, towards the back.
Women made, owned and built the tipis.
Three or four foundation poles were tied
together with a piece or rawhide and
raised.
Poles were placed to make the tipi
slightly steeper at the back, making it
sturdier, and more able to withstand
strong wind.
The last pole to go up was placed at the
back.
A carefully sewn buffalo hide cover was
then carefully fitted over the poles.
A hole to let the smoke was left at the top
and could be regulated with two flaps
attached to two long poles.
The fire pit was in the centre of the tent,
with the beds arranged around the walls
of the tipi.
The long end of the rawhide was staked
to the ground to secure the foundation
poles.
Stone tent rings
Stone tent rings
Heavy stones were gathered to hold
down the bottom edge of the tent
covering to prevent the tipi from being
blown down by the wind. When a tipi
was taken down the stones were rolled
away and the people moved on.
Stones were common and easy to find,
so they didn’t need to be taken with
the Natives.
These heavy stones were always left
behind. Today it is easy to find
locations where plains Indian villages
once stood. The tent rings of stones
they left behind can be found on many
hills or beside rivers all over the empty
prairies of western Canada.
The Rising Sun: A tepee used a
hide flap as a doorway. Weather
permitting, the entrance faced
east, towards the rising sun.
If the weather was miserable or a
storm was brewing, the people
positioned the flap opening in
whatever way would best serve
the comfort of the occupants.
Sometimes, the people arranged
their tepees in a circle, with all
the opening flaps facing the
center open space created by the
circle of tepees. The younger kids
could play in this open space,
under the watchful eyes of their
mothers.
She’s the boss!
Women were in charge of the teepees: It
was up to the women where to place a
tepee. The tepee was their castle, and
they were in charge of anything to do
with it, including building it and then
breaking it down for transports.
The woman was in charge of behavior
inside the tepee, as well. If she said, "Go
to sleep," everyone had to go to sleep or
leave the tepee. If new furs were needed,
the man had to supply new furs. It was
her tepee.
Painted Skins: Men were in charge of the
outside of the tepee. It was up to them to
bring back the skins necessary to cover
the poles. It was up to them to either
bring back horses or hides to trade for
poles, or to make the poles themselves.
The men often painted the outside of the
tepee they called home. The painting was
often symbolic of their achievements.
Each tribe had their own style.
Teepee rules
Inside the Tepee: There was a small
fire in the center for cooking and for
warmth when needed. Tepees had an
open space at the top, a little off
center, to let the smoke out. When it
rained or snowed, the men were sent
outside to wrap an extra piece of hide
around the top of the tepee. The men
always left a little room for the smoke
to get out. The Plains people used little
furniture; They slept on buffalo skins
on the floor of their homes.
Tepee Manners If the entrance flap
was open, it was an invitation to enter.
If the flap was closed, you needed to
announce yourself and wait for an
invitation to enter a tepee, even if you
lived there. A guest always sat to the
left of the head of the family, who
always sat the farthest from the door
flap. These were rules that everyone
knew and everyone followed.
Prairie chicken
Food
The Plains Natives had a wide variety
of animals and plants to eat. The
women collected berries that were
eaten fresh or dried and saved for the
winter months. The Saskatoon berry
(similar to blueberries) was a favourite
for most of the Plains Natives.
The Plains Cree and Plains Ojibwa
Natives fished since they lived near
rivers and small lakes.
Deer, moose and elk, along with
wolves, coyotes, lynx, rabbits, gophers,
and prairie chickens were hunted for
food.
The Natives also ate Bannock which
was a type of bread cooked over the
fire.
The Indian Turnip was a common
vegetable that was eaten.
Indian turnip
Drying Saskatoon Berries
Saskatoon Berries
Buffalo food.
By far the most common food eaten by
the Plains Natives was the Bison
(Buffalo). The Buffalo could be eaten
raw (the liver), dried and made into
Pemmican and soups, or cooked over
an open fire. Cooked was the most
common way.
Pemmican was a common way to eat
buffalo. The buffalo meat was dried
and then pounded into thin strips.
Hot buffalo fat was added along with
some Saskatoon berries for flavour.
Pine nuts could also be added. The
mixture was poured into a leather bag
and left to cool. Pemmican could last
up to one year inside the bag without
spoiling. It supplied the natives with a
quick and high-energy meal.
You can find Pemmican in stores today,
but it is not the same. It is only dried
meat.
Pemmican
buffalo horns
Buffalo versatility
The buffalo was an important source of food,
yet the Natives valued this animal because of
the vast amount of every-day products that
could be made from just one buffalo.
Buffalo feet
HAIR
headdresses, saddle pad filler, pillows, rope,
ornaments, halters, medicine balls.
TAIL
medicine switch, fly swatter, teepee
decorations, whips.
HOOF & FEET
glue, rattles, hatchets used for butchering.
HORNS
cups, fire carriers, powder horn, spoons,
ladles, headdresses, signals, toys , wedges to
split wood, tips, hide scrapers with a blade
inserted into them, parts of bows.
MEAT (every part eaten)
hump ribs eaten immediately .
Liver was eaten immediately by the hunters,
sprinkled with gall fluid and considered the
trophy of the hunt.
buffalo tail
SKIN OF HIND LEG
moccasins or boots
RAWHIDE
containers, clothing, headdress, food,
medicine bags, shields, buckets, moccasin
soles, rattles, drums, drumsticks, splints,
cinches, ropes, belts, bullets, pouches,
saddles, horse masks, lance cases, armbands,
quirts, bull boats, knife cases, stirrups,
thongs, horse ornaments.
Elk, Deer or Antelope hides were preferred
for dresses for women as they were lighter
than the heavier Buffalo skins.
TANNED HIDES
Robes, tipi coverings, moccasins, loin clothes,
wrappings for the dead, bedding, war deed
records, winter counts, tipi flooring, various
pouches, disguise for hunting more buffalo.
BONES
were used for tools, needles, awls (used to
puncture the skins for sewing). Shoulder
blades made digging hoes. Large leg bones
were used as ground pegs. Bones were
shaped as tools to flatten porcupine quills
used in decoration. Skulls used in religious
ceremonies.
BUFFALO DUNG
Dried, it was collected and used for fuel in
fires to cook and provide heat. Finely
powdered dung was used as a prevention of
diaper rash.
STOMACH.
Water containers, Cooking, Boiling water,
storage.
BLADDER
tobacco pouches, water containers.
INTESTINES
Water bags, storage containers, sausage
making.
BRAINS
tanning hides
HEART
eaten but the outer lining was used as a bag
TALLOW (boiled down fat)
Healing wounds, weaning children, sealing
tobacco into pipes, mixing paints, sealing
food into containers, mixed with jerky to
make pemmican.
GRISTLE
Glue, teething babies chewed it
SINEW
Ropes, cords, binding, small tool handles,
attaching arrowheads, bow strings and
backing, sewing thread, glue manufacture.
Buffalo dung
Buffalo dung
Buffalo hunting
Buffalo hunting techniques can be
divided into two basic categories;
stalking by a few individuals and
communal hunting by large groups.
Stalking required a careful approach
from downwind to avoid being scented
by the buffalo. Two or three Natives
would slowly and carefully sneak up to
where buffalo were feeding. In
summer, a wolf skin might be worn as
a disguise since the buffalo would
allow wolves to approach closely. In
winter, a white blanket hid the hunter
as he stalked the herd. When the
Natives were close enough, they
would use spears or bow and arrows
to kill the buffalo.
Communal buffalo hunt
Communal hunting was more common
and usually had much greater rewards.
In this method, often hundreds of
buffalo were killed at one time. This
system was used when large herds of
buffalo were found.
The first communal technique was
called the Buffalo Pound. A buffalo
pound was a corral, usually made
within a grove of trees. A circular area
was cleared and the trees were piled
around the clearing to make a fence.
Buffalo were chased and scared into
the general area while other hunters
closed the area into an even smaller
region. Eventually, the buffalo were
forced into the corral where they were
killed.
Buffalo jump
The most extreme and dangerous
method was the buffalo jump. In this
style of hunting, a large herd were
directed towards a cliff or steep bank
over which the animals were driven to
their deaths. This technique could only be
used if a suitable ledge or cliff was found
on the generally flat prairie. One famous
location in Canada is called HeadSmashed-In Buffalo Jump near Fort
Macleod, Alberta.
This technique was the most dangerous
for two individuals. Two fast running
natives would be draped in buffalo skins
and placed in front of the running
buffalo. These two ran towards the cliff
while the poor sighted buffalo followed.
The Natives would grab ropes, jump off of
the cliff and swing onto a landing below.
If they were too slow, the buffalo might
catch them and trample them. To fast,
and the buffalo might stop before the
ledge. Timing was everything.
The Chase
The Spanish brought horses to North
America in 1519. Shortly after that,
the Plains Natives adopted this animal
as their own. It became almost as
important to them as the buffalo. The
final method of communal buffalo
hunting was called The Chase. This is
the method most seen in Hollywood
movies and written about by historical
writers.
The chase began with a line of hunters
on horse back who approached the
herd at a walk until the buffalo began
to move away. Then the hunters
charged into the herd, selected the
fattest animals, and killed them with a
spear, arrow or bullet. The hunt
continued until the horses were
exhausted. Accidental wounding and
Natives falling off their horses were
common, but the chase was regarded
as a great sport and a sign of bravery
between the hunters.
Transportation
Originally, the Plains people travelled
everywhere on foot.
During the winter, snowshoes made
walking on deep snow easier.
Like the Inuit, the Plains Natives had
dogs. Sleds were pulled by the dogs,
which greatly helped transport items
in the winter.
As well as sleds, Travois were placed
on dogs and used for transportation. A
travois is a structure made of two
poles which crossed at the top and
attached to some netting or a wooden
frame. A dog could pull only a limited
amount.
Horse Transportation
The introduction of the horse to the
Plains Natives greatly changed their
transportation.
A horse could carry five times as much
as a dog.
With a horse travois, they could carry a
lot more gear than before. They could
carry larger tent poles which could
make larger teepees than before. Now,
everyone could keep far more
possessions since everything was now
easier to carry.
Food was often brought back to the
camp by horse which meant that the
Native camps did not need to move as
often.
The swift horse made hunting easier
(as we have seen with buffalo
hunting), and travelling further
distances was a reality.
Seasonal migration
In the winter, tribes would settle in
wooded valley areas where they were
sheltered from the harsh weather.
The Plains Natives did not wander
without direction, but moved their
camps to the same areas each year,
where they knew they could find food.
They buffalo often migrated in yearly
and repeated patterns, so the Natives
often returned to the same camp
sights year after year.
They thought of the seasonal
migration pattern as a circle, so the
circle became a sacred symbol,
signifying life and renewal.
In spring, they would follow the
Buffalo back to the prairies.
The tribes only came together in the
summer when the Buffalo herds were
mostly in one area, and together, the
tribes could perform a Buffalo jump.
Native breastplate
Every day clothing
The Plain Indians would wear clothing to
meet the purpose of providing warmth,
protection and religious ceremony.
The women prepared the hides and
sewed the clothing or moccasins.
The hides were sometimes only tanned
on one side and the hair on the other
side was left for warmth.
Men wore shirts, breechcloths and fulllength leggings.
Ponchos were worn over shoulders for
added warmth.
All clothing was hand-made from skins of
animals, especially buffalo, antelope and
deer hides. Warriors wore breastplates
made from shells or bones and shields
made from buffalo hides (skin) to protect
from spears and arrows.
Of course, they liked being pretty too,
girls in particular! They would add beads
and fringes to their buffalo hide. After the
Natives made contact with the
Europeans, buffalo hides were often
traded for coloured beads, coloured
thread and small needles all for the sake
of fashion!
More clothing
Moose hide was used for soft-soled
moccasins.
Dried grass provided the moccasin
with extra insulation.
Sinew, or bone awl and a needle were
used to sew up moccasins.
Women wore dresses and short
leggings.
Plains women’s snug-fitting leggings
reached from the ankles to just below
her knees, were made of two pieces of
buckskin, and were wider at the top
than at the bottom.
They laced up with leather ties.
The slip was the most common style of
dress; it tied up around the neck and
under the arms.
Two sides were laced together with
sinew.
Those of high status would wear
grizzly bear claw necklace. Others
would decorate their clothes using
feathers.
War bonnets or headdresses were
worn by honored Plains Native men. In
the past they were sometimes worn
into battle, but most often worn
during ceremonies or special
occasions. They are seen as items of
great spiritual and magical
importance. The eagle is considered by
Plains tribes as the greatest and most
powerful of all birds, and so the finest
war bonnets were made out of its
feathers.
The War Bonnet
The bonnet had to be earned through
brave deeds in battle. Each feather
represented one brave deed. The
feathers were very hard to get. Some
warriors might earn only two or three
honour feathers in their whole
lifetime. The bonnet was also a mark
of highest respect because it could
only be earned with the agreement of
the leaders of the tribe. A high honor
was received by the warrior who was
the first to touch an enemy fallen in
battle, for this meant the warrior was
at the very front of fighting.
Feathers were notched and decorated
to represent an event and each one
told an individual story such as killing,
capturing an enemy's weapon and
shield, and whether the deed had
been done on horseback or on foot.
The Thunderbird
Religion
The Plain Indians believed in many
gods. They believed that gods showed
themselves as the sun, the moon and
the stars. They also believed that all
animals were controlled by
underwater spirits and the upper
world was ruled by the thunderbirds.
The two animals they saw as spiritual
animals were the eagle and the
buffalos.
To most tribes, the eagle is referred to
as the thunderbird in stories. It was
believed that when eagles open and
close their eyes, they cause lightning.
They also saw the eagle as their god's
messenger.
The Sun Dance
The Plain Indians performed many
ceremonies. The sun dance was a
special religious ceremony. It was
aimed at asking the sun (a god) for
strength and to help their tribe
prosper. Each tribe had its own
version of the Sun Dance but most of
the ceremonies had great similarities.
The Sun Dance usually took place in
summer and lasted for 4 days. The
performer would have their face
painted and others would blow
through the eagle bone and play the
drums to call on the Thunderbird (the
god). For all 4 days (except the last
day), none of the Natives performing
the Sun Dance would take any food or
water.
Sun Dance
Day One – on the first day of the sun
dance ceremony, a tree had to be
selected. The Natives preferred the
cottonwood tree which they thought
was sacred. Some tribes created the
sun dance circle around the tree
where it grew while other native
groups cut the tree down and brought
it to an already established sun dance
circle. The tree was secured into the
ground.
Day Two – The entire second day was
spent dancing and praying in the sun
dance circle. The dancers would
become very hot and thirsty since they
could not take any water and also very
tired since they could not take any
food.
Sun Dance
Day Three – On the third day of the
ceremony, the piercing took place.
The medicine men would go to each
person and cut their chest to put a peg
through the skin. The peg is then
attached to a rope which is connected
to the sacred tree. The men would
then dance, moving back and forth
against the rope until they yanked the
peg out.
Another variation of this ceremony
was to hang by the nipple until the
peg broke through the skin. Whatever
the variation, the Plains Indians
believed that the more pain the
person could stand, the more likely
that the spirits would cause their tribe
to prosper.
The end of the ceremony
Day four – the final day of the sun
dance ceremony was a big feast for
everyone, both those who were
involved in the ceremony and those
who were watching.
The wounds of the sun dance
participants were treated, including
stitching the skin that had ripped.
For the participants, this meal may be
the best ever since they had not eaten
for four days.
The end of the sun dance
The traditional sun dance ceremony
continues today, but it is much
different. The body piercing part of
the ceremony was outlawed by the
Canadian government in 1895. The
government felt this act was too
severe and savage, especially since
many white Europeans were moving
into the area and would definitely not
understand what was going on.
Unlike the potlatch ceremony
practiced by the Haida, which was
completely banned by the Canadian
government, the sun dance ceremony
was allowed to continue exactly as it
was except for the body piercing. The
Plains Natives continued to practice
the ceremony, and it is still practiced
today.
Small sweat lodge frame
Vision Quest
Another ceremony of the Plains Natives
was the Vision Quest. This ceremony was
only for the boys who were turning into
men. The purpose of this ceremony was
to seek a spirit who would protect him
throughout his life.
In this ceremony, the young man would
built a sweat lodge. This was a small
wooden room that the boy could enter.
Inside the sweat lodge, rocks were heated
up and water was poured on top, making
lots of steam. The Natives believed that
the steam would purify the young man.
Only after he was purified was he ready
to seek his spirit.
After the sweat, the boy jumped into a
pool of cold water. He was then led into
the forest where he fasted for a few days,
while seeking a vision that was given by
his spirit.
Then members of the tribe retrieved him,
and the boy visited a shaman with his
vision. After, the whole village had a
feast to celebrate.
The Powwow
The term "powwow" comes from an
Algonquin word for "medicine man" or
"he who dreams."
A powwow gathers people together to
celebrate life. It does this through song
and dance, ceremonies, and rituals.
This ceremony was more like a party
with all Natives showing great
hospitality and manners.
The ceremony had no fixed time – it
could last for a few hours or a few
days. It could involve a few tribes or
many tribes.
Singing, dancing and eating were the
main event of the powwow.
During the dance, all dancers were in a
circle with singers around the outside
of the circle beating on a large drum.
The celebration was also a chance to
show off your newest clothes!
The powwow today
The powwow has become the largest
and most popular celebration of the
Plains Natives. There are hundreds of
powwows across the Great Plains
every year. Saskatchewan has the
most powwows of any province in
Canada or State in the United States.
Today, there are two main types of
powwows. One is for show and the
other is a competition. In the
competition, dancers, drummers and
musicians compete for large prize
money in today’s ceremonies.
Another reason the powwow is
popular today is that it is open to both
Natives and non Natives. Tens of
thousands of non Natives from around
the world visit powwows in Canada
every year.
Art
The Plains Natives made lots of art, yet
all of it was to adorn the everyday
objects that they used. They never
made a piece of art simply to have a
piece of art!
Their art decorated teepees, a animal
skin containers, and their clothing.
Paintings on teepees often showed
scenes of this world, like animals and
hunting as well as the spiritual world
with paintings of the stars and their
interpretation of the spirits.
Some of their wooden items, like
pipes, spoons and bowls were carved
with careful detail so they almost
looked like art, yet they were still
functional.
The war bonnets were also artistic and
required great skill to make.
These Natives also practiced tattooing.
Quillwork
Quillwork was the oldest form of
embroidery. Porcupine quills were
usually dyed with berry juices. Then,
they were folded, twisted, wrapped,
plaited and sewn into designs for
clothing, moccasins, bags, baskets,
handles and pipe stems.
To collect the quills, women threw a
blanket over a porcupine, and as a
defense mechanism, the porcupine
raised its quills into the blanket.
The porcupine’s quills were different
depending on what part of the body
they were taken from. Quills from the
porcupine’s tail were good for
wrapping handles, or for fringes. Quills
from the porcupine’s back were good
for loomwork. Quills from the neck
were used for embroidery. The
thinnest quills from the belly were
good for delicate lines. Quills could be
flattened by pulling them through the
teeth.
Buffalo Bull’s Back Fat
Sitting Bull
The Family Structure
While men hunted for food, women
would do the cooking, sew the
clothing, and make tools while taking
care of the children.
The women were also in charge of
constructing the teepees and
gathering wood and water for the
campsite.
Children – Babies were the
responsibility of the mother, yet all
children were raised by all of the
adults in the group. Each person took
this responsibility very seriously.
The naming of children was also a very
serious responsibility. A child might be
named after a great warrior, or an
animal or something seen in a dream.
Some famous Plains Natives leaders
were: Sitting Bull, Geronimo, Red
Cloud, Lone Wolf, Buffalo Bull’s Back
Fat, and Crowfoot and Crazy Horse.
Crazy Horse statue
Crowfoot
Geronimo
Geronimo
George Custer
Sitting Bull
Sitting Bull was one of the most famous
Indian Chiefs of the Plains Culture. He
was a Sioux leader in the area that is now
known as South Dakota. He lived from
l83l-l890. During this time gold was
discovered on the land that Sitting Bull's
tribe lived on. The government tried to
force the Sioux Indians to move off their
land. Sitting Bull and his tribe would not
peacefully move. In June, l876, a major
battle occurred between Sitting Bull and
U.S. soldiers led by General George
Custer. Custer's groups of soldiers had
260 men. Custer was told to wait for
more soldiers to arrive. Instead of
waiting, he decided to go forward with
just the men he had. Sitting Bull's group
of warriors numbered between 2,500 4,000 men. The warriors surrounded
Custer's soldiers and attacked. Custer and
most of his soldiers were killed. This
became known as the Battle of Little
Bighorn or Custer’s Last Stand.
Battle of Little Bighorn
Cradle board
More about kids
Children kept in a moss bag along side
the mother while she worked.
It was made from hide or cloth and
filled with dry moss and crumbled
wood that absorbed a baby’s waste,
and was changed after being dirtied.
Cradle Boards - A Cradle Board was a
U-shaped piece of board that a child in
a moss bag was lashed to, and placed
on the mother's back, allowing her to
continue with work.
Moss bag
Friends and Enemies
There were no boundaries, such as the
one that now exists between Canada
and the United States. But each tribe
recognized the traditional hunting
areas of other tribes. Tribes recognized
some others as allies (or friends), and
others as enemies.
The Blackfoot tribes maintained
friendships by intermarrying within
the other’s tribe.
The Blackfoot Confederacy tribes were
known friends and fought against
others like the Assiniboine, the Cree,
the Sioux, the Crow, the Shoshoni and
the Kootenay tribes to the North.
The Assiniboine and the Cree were
friends and helped each other fight
tribes from the Blackfoot Confederacy.
Medicine bundles
Native Wars
Tribes would send a limited amount of
warriors to surprise a tribe, and ravage
their village.
A ceremony always preceded the raid
and the warriors always left believing
they would not return.
Spiritually important items were kept
in a pouch called a medicine bundle,
and carried by the warrior for
protection and strength.
Horses also changed warfare on the
plains. Young warriors found it great
sport to sneak into a rival tribe's camp
and steal horses. This led to many
skirmishes and flare-ups between the
tribes. Then the Chiefs had to make
peace pacts, which might only last
until the next raid a few months later.
First Nations of the plains had plenty
of experience in making alliances,
pacts, and treaties.