OPTICAL FIBERS: STRUCTURES, WAVEGUIDING, AND FABRICATION Irfan khan The Nature of Light 1. Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave that can be seen by humans. 2. The wave nature of light was first illustrated through experiments on diffraction and interference. 3. Like all electromagnetic waves, light can travel through a vacuum. 4. The transverse nature of light can be demonstrated through polarization. 5. The speed of light depends upon the medium through which it travels. 6. Intensity is the absolute measure of a light wave's power density 7. Brightness is the relative intensity as perceived by the average human eye. 8. The frequency of a light wave is related to its energy and color. 9. The wavelength of a light wave is inversely proportional to its frequency. Irfan khan Irfan khan irfan Spherical and plane wave fronts Irfan khan Field distributions in plane E&M waves Irfan khan The Structure of an Electromagnetic Wave. Electric and magnetic fields are actually superimposed over the top of one another but are illustrated separately for clarity in illustration. The z-direction can be considered to be either a representation in space or the passing of time at a single point. Irfan khan Amplitude Fluctuation in an Electromagnetic Wave. Here both the electric field and the magnetic field are shown as a single field oscillating about a locus of points which forms the line of travel. Irfan khan Irfan khan Basic Optical Laws and Definitions Refractive Index The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in matter is known as the refractive index or index of refraction n of the material and is given by n=c/v Typical values of n are 1.00 for air, 1.33 for water, 1.45 for silica glass 2.42 for diamond. larger value of n = Denser material lower value of n = Less denser material Irfan khan Index of Refraction n1<n2<n3 Irfan khan Irfan khan Refraction and reflection Reflection of light • Some part of the light reflected when strikes on a surface • Laws of reflection of light – Angle of incident is equal to angle of reflection – The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lies in same direction Refraction of light • When light enters from one medium to other medium – Direction and velocity are changed – It is called refraction of light Irfan khan Refraction and reflection – When light passes from rare to dense medium, it bends towards the normal – When light passes from dense to rare medium, it bends away from the normal – Law of refraction is • The incident ray, the normal, and the refracted ray at the point of incident all lies in the same plane • The ratio of the sine of angle incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is always constant – This ratio is called refractive index Irfan khan Irfan khan Refraction and reflection Irfan khan Diagrams illustrating reflection and refraction of light, viewed as waves and particles. Irfan khan Irfan khan Refraction and reflection • Snell,s Law – Snell discovered the relationship between the refractive indices of the materials and the sine of the angles as: • n1 sinф1 = n2 sinф2 – If the angle of refraction is 90 then it is equal to 1 so • Sinфc =n2 / n1 Irfan khan Refraction and reflection • Total internal reflection – When light passes from denser medium to rarer medium it bends away from the normal – The incident angle for which angle of refraction is 90° is called critical angle – If incident angle becomes more than critical angle all the light will reflect back to the same denser medium – Such a phenomenon is called total internal reflection Irfan khan A Angle of Incidence B Glass Air Angle of Refraction Critical Angle C Glass Air Glass Air Angle of Incidence 90 0 = Angle of Reflection Glass Air D The critical angle of incidence. Irfan khan Irfan khan Polarization Components of Light •Light is composed of one or more transverse electromagnetic waves •Electric field (called an E field) and a magnetic field (called an H field) component. •In a transverse wave the directions of the vibrating electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and are at right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave •Vibrations in the electric field are parallel to one another at all points in the wave, so that the electric field forms a plane called the plane of vibration •All points in the magnetic field component of the wave lie in a plane that is at right angles to the electric field plane. Irfan khan Unpolarized light An ordinary light wave is made up of many transverse waves that vibrate in a variety of directions (i.e., in more than one plane) and is referred to as unpolarized light. Any arbitrary direction of vibration can be represented as a combination of a parallel vibration and a perpendicular vibration As soon as light interacts with anything, whether through reflection, transmission, or scattering, there is opportunity for polarization to be induced. Irfan khan Unpolarized light Unpolarized light can be split into separate polarization components either by reflection off a nonmetallic surface or by refraction when the light passes from one material to another. The refracted light is polarized depends on the angle at which the light approaches the surface and on the material itself. In the case when all the electric field planes of the different transverse waves are aligned parallel to one another, then the light wave is linearly polarized. This is the simplest type of polarization. Irfan khan Polarized/unpolarized waves on rope. Irfan khan Multitude of polarization components Parallel polarization components Perpendicular polarization components Polarization represented as a combination of a parallel vibration and perpendicular vibration Irfan khan Irfan khan Reflected ray Incident ray Ф1 Ф2 n2 < n1 Material interface n1 Refracted ray Perpendicular polarization Parallel polarization Partially refracted perpendicular polarization Behavior of an unpolarized light beam at the interface between air and a nonmetallic surface Irfan khan Irfan khan Depending on the orientation of the slot, the train of waves (a) goes entirely through the slot; (b) is partly reflected and partly transmitted with changed angles of rope vibration; or (c) is completely reflected. Irfan khan Polarization-Sensitive Materials 1. Polarizer 2. Faraday rotator 3. Birefringent crystals A polarizer is a material or device that transmits only one polarization component and blocks the other. A Faraday rotator is a device that rotates the state of polarization (SOP) of light passing through it by a specific amount Certain crystalline materials have a property called double refraction or birefringence. This means that the indices of refraction are slightly different along two perpendicular axes of the crystal. A device made from such materials is known as a spatial walk-off polarizer (SWP). Irfan khan Polarizer Irfan khan Faraday rotator A Faraday rotator is a device that rotates the state of polarization clockwise by 45o or a quarter of a wavelength Irfan khan Faraday rotator Irfan khan Faraday rotator Irfan khan Birefringent crystals Irfan khan Irfan khan Birefringent crystals Some Common Birefringent Crystals and Their Ordinary and Extraordinary Indices of Refraction Irfan khan Intentionally Left Blank Irfan khan Optical fiber modes and configurations Fiber Structures Cross sections of a generic fiber structure showing a core, a cladding, and a buffer coating Irfan khan Single fiber structure Irfan khan Core 1. Light propagates along the core of the fiber. 2. Core material is highly pure silica SiO2 and is surrounded by glass cladding. Cladding 1. Cladding reduces scattering loss that results from the dielectric discontinuities at the core surface. 2. It adds mechanical strength to the fiber 3. It protects the core from absorbing surface contaminants with which it could come in contact. Irfan khan • What does a Micron look like? Human Hair .0035 inch 1 Micron .000039 inch .001 mm 90 Micron 9 Microns Irfan khan Fiber Types Generally two types 1. Single mode 2. Multimode Step index Fiber Graded index Fiber • Modes – Simply can be defined as the different paths of the light through the optical fiber cable – Every mode is represented by a unique solution of the Maxwell’s equation inside the core – The stable Field distribution along the x-axis with only a periodic z-dependence is known as mode Irfan khan Fiber Types Irfan khan Irfan khan Fiber Types Single mode fiber – Only permits the fundamental mode of the light • Smaller diameter of the core • Numerical aperture is also small • Reduced acceptance angle • Difficult to couple the light in the fiber Irfan khan Fiber Types Multimode fiber – Transmits a large number of modes – Each mode has the different path through the fiber – Each mode arrives at the end at slightly different time (modal dispersion) – Modal dispersion can be reduced by varying the refractive index with in the core – There are two types of multimode fibers • Step index and graded index Irfan khan Fiber Types • Step index Multimode fiber – The core of the fiber has the uniform refractive index. • Graded index Multimode Fiber Graded-index fiber becoming very popular for specialized applications. It is relatively expensive to manufacture, due to its complex core structure. Irfan khan Fiber Types Advantages Multimode Fiber: 1. Easier to launch optical power into the fiber. 2. Easier to connect similar optical fibers. 3. LED are used for launching optical power whereas single mode fiber use Laser. • LEDs are easier to make • Less expensive • Less complex circuitry • Longer life time Disadvantage: 1. Intermodal dispersion Irfan khan Ray Optics Ray optics representation of the propagation mechanism in an ideal step index fiber. Irfan khan Ray Optics • Acceptance angle – The entering rays which have the angle greater than θc can be transmitted in optical fiber – As the fiber is Circular, so angle is applicable in two dimensions and would look like a cone – The range of incident angles which can be used for total Internal Reflection is called Cone of acceptance – Irfan khan Ray Optics • Numerical Aperture It is measure of fiber’s light gathering ability. This represent the coupling of light into the fiber core. Think of the aperture as a funnel, the larger the funnel the more usable light that’s pumped into the core. Irfan khan Ray Optics • Numerical Aperture Light will be accepted and propagated only if it enters the core and strikes the cladding at an angle greater than the critical angle. Any light rays striking the core within this acceptance cone will be propagated down the fiber. Sin value of acceptance angle is called Numerical aperture. Irfan khan Ray Optics Critical angle Sin θc = n2 / n1 Maximum entrance angle n sin θ0,max =n1 sin θc = (n12 - n22 ) 1/2 Numerical Aperture NA NA= n sin θ0,max = (n12 - n22 ) 1/2 Irfan khan Intentionally Left Blank Irfan khan Optical rays transmission through dielectric slab waveguide n1 n 2 ; c 2 c O For TE-case, when electric waves are normal to the plane of incidence must be satisfied with following relationship: 2 2 2 n1 d sin m n1 cos n2 tan 2 n1 sin Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000 [2-25] Irfan khan Note • Home work 2-1) Find an expression for ,considering that the electric field component of optical wave is parallel to the plane of incidence (TMcase). • As you have seen, the polarization of light wave down the slab waveguide changes the condition of light transmission. Hence we should also consider the EM wave analysis of EM wave propagation through the dielectric slab waveguide. In the next slides, we will introduce the fundamental concepts of such a treatment, without going into mathematical detail. Basically we will show the result of solution to the Maxwell’s equations in different regions of slab waveguide & applying the boundary conditions for electric & magnetic fields at the surface of each slab. We will try to show the connection between EM wave and ray optics analyses. Irfan khan EM analysis of Slab waveguide • For each particular angle, in which light ray can be faithfully transmitted along slab waveguide, we can obtain one possible propagating wave solution from a Maxwell’s equations or mode. • The modes with electric field perpendicular to the plane of incidence (page) are called TE (Transverse Electric) and numbered as: TE 0 , TE 1 , TE 2 ,... Electric field distribution of these modes for 2D slab waveguide can be expressed as: Em ( x, y, z, t ) e x f m ( y) cos(ωt m z ) [2-26] m 0,1,2,3 (mode number) wave transmission along slab waveguides, fibers & other type of optical waveguides can be fully described by time & z dependency of the mode: cos(ωt m z ) or e j (t m z ) Irfan khan TE modes in slab waveguide y z Em ( x, y, z, t ) e x f m ( y) cos(ωt m z ) m 0,1,2,3 (mode number) Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000 Irfan khan Modes in slab waveguide • The order of the mode is equal to the # of field zeros across the guide. The order of the mode is also related to the angle in which the ray congruence corresponding to this mode makes with the plane of the waveguide (or axis of the fiber). The steeper the angle, the higher the order of the mode. • For higher order modes the fields are distributed more toward the edges of the guide and penetrate further into the cladding region. • Radiation modes in fibers are not trapped in the core & guided by the fiber but they are still solutions of the Maxwell’ eqs. with the same boundary conditions. These infinite continuum of the modes results from the optical power that is outside the fiber acceptance angle being refracted out of the core. • In addition to bound & refracted (radiation) modes, there are leaky modes in optical fiber. They are partially confined to the core & attenuated by continuously radiating this power out of the core as they traverse along the fiber (results from Tunneling effect which is quantum mechanical phenomenon.) A mode remains guided as long as n2 k n1k Irfan khan Optical Fibers: Modal Theory (Guided or Propagating modes) & Ray Optics Theory n1 n2 Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000 n1 n2 Step Index Fiber Irfan khan Modal Theory of Step Index fiber • General expression of EM-wave in the circular fiber can be written as: E (r , , z, t ) Am E m (r , , z, t ) AmU m (r , )e j ( ωt m z ) m m j ( ωt m z ) H (r , , z, t ) Am H m (r , , z, t ) AmVm (r , )e m m [2-27] • Each of the characteristic solutions Em (r , , z, t ) & H m (r , , z, t ) is called mth mode of the optical fiber. • It is often sufficient to give the E-field of the mode. U m (r, )e j (ωt m z ) m 1,2,3... Irfan khan • The modal field distribution, U m (r, ) , and the mode propagation constant, m are obtained from solving the Maxwell’s equations subject to the boundary conditions given by the cross sectional dimensions and the dielectric constants of the fiber. • Most important characteristics of the EM transmission along the fiber are determined by the mode propagation constant, m (ω) , which depends on the mode & in general varies with frequency or wavelength. This quantity is always between the plane propagation constant (wave number) of the core & the cladding media . n2 k m (ω) n1k [2-28] Irfan khan • At each frequency or wavelength, there exists only a finite number of guided or propagating modes that can carry light energy over a long distance along the fiber. Each of these modes can propagate in the fiber only if the frequency is above the cut-off frequency, ω c , (or the source wavelength is smaller than the cut-off wavelength) obtained from cut-off condition that is: m (ω c ) n 2 k [2-29] • To minimize the signal distortion, the fiber is often operated in a single mode regime. In this regime only the lowest order mode (fundamental mode) can propagate in the fiber and all higher order modes are under cutoff condition (non-propagating). • Multi-mode fibers are also extensively used for many applications. In these fibers many modes carry the optical signal collectively & simultaneously. Irfan khan Fundamental Mode Field Distribution Mode field diameter Polarizations of fundamental mode Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000 Irfan khan Different Structures of Optical Fiber Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000 Irfan khan Mode designation in circular cylindrical waveguide (Optical Fiber) TE lm modes : The electric field vector lies in transverse plane. TM lm modes : The magnetic field vector lies in transverse plane. Hybrid HE lm modes :TE component is larger than TM component. Hybrid EH lm modes : TM component is larger than TE component. y l= # of variation cycles or zeros in direction. m= # of variation cycles or zeros in r direction. z Linearly Polarized (LP) modes in weakly-guided fibers ( n1 r x n2 1 ) LP0 m (HE 1m ), LP1m (TE 0 m TM 0 m HE 0 m ) Fundamental Mode: LP01 (HE 11 ) Irfan khan Two degenerate fundamental modes in Fibers (Horizontal & Vertical HE 11 Modes) Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000 Irfan khan Mode propagation constant as a function of frequency • Mode propagation constant, lm (ω), is the most important transmission characteristic of an optical fiber, because the field distribution can be easily written in the form of eq. [2-27]. • In order to find a mode propagation constant and cut-off frequencies of various modes of the optical fiber, first we have to calculate the normalized frequency, V, defined by: 2a 2a 2 2 V n1 n2 NA [2-30] a: radius of the core, is the optical free space wavelength, n1 & n2 are the refractive indices of the core & cladding. Irfan khan Plots of the propagation constant as a function of normalized frequency for a few of the lowest-order modes Irfan khan Single mode Operation • The cut-off wavelength or frequency for each mode is obtained from: lm (ω c ) n2 k 2n2 c c n2 [2-31] c • Single mode operation is possible (Single mode fiber) when: V 2.405 [2-32] Only HE11 can propagate faithfully along optical fiber Irfan khan Single-Mode Fibers 0.1% to 1% ; a 6 to 12 m ; V 2.3 to 2.4 @ max frequency or min • Example: A fiber with a radius of 4 micrometer and n1 1.500 & n2 1.498 has a normalized frequency of V=2.38 at a wavelength 1 micrometer. The fiber is single-mode for all wavelengths greater and equal to 1 micrometer. MFD (Mode Field Diameter): It is an important parameter for single mode fiber. • This parameter can be determined from the mode-field distribution of the fundamental fiber mode. The electric field of the first fundamental mode can be written as: E (r ) E 0 exp( r2 W0 2 ); MFD 2W0 [2-33] Irfan khan Birefringence in single-mode fibers • Because of asymmetries the refractive indices for the two degenerate modes (vertical & horizontal polarizations) are different. This difference is referred to as birefringence, B f : B f n y nx Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000 [2-34] Irfan khan Fiber Beat Length • In general, a linearly polarized mode is a combination of both of the degenerate modes. As the modal wave travels along the fiber, the difference in the refractive indices would change the phase difference between these two components & thereby the state of the polarization of the mode. However after certain length referred to as fiber beat length, the modal wave will produce its original state of polarization. This length is simply given by: 2 Lp kB f [2-35] Irfan khan Multi-Mode Operation • Total number of modes, M, supported by a multi-mode fiber is approximately (When V is large) given by: V2 M 2 [2-36] • Power distribution in the core & the cladding: Another quantity of interest is the ratio of the mode power in the cladding, Pclad to the total optical power in the fiber, P, which at the wavelengths (or frequencies) far from the cut-off is given by: Pclad 4 P 3 M [2-37] Irfan khan Graded Index Fiber (GIN) • The most commonly used GIN have the index variation of core as the power law given by r n(r ) n1 1 2 a 1 2 for 0 r a n(r ) n1 1 2 2 n1 1 n2 for r a 1 • No. of bounded modes in GIN fibr is Mg 2 a k n 2 2 2 1 V2 2 2 Irfan khan The mode field is defined as the distance between the points where the strength of the electric field is decayed to 0.37 (1/e) of the peak. Irfan khan Intentionally Left Blank Irfan khan FIBER MATERIALS In selecting materials following requirements must be satisfied 1. 2. It must b possible to make long, thin, flexible fibers fro the material The material must be transparent at a particular wavelength in order for the fiber to guide light effectively. 3. Physically compatible materials that have slightly different refractive indices for the core and cladding must be available Materials that satisfy these requirements are glasses and plastics • Usually fibers are made of glass consisting of either silica SiO2 or silicate • • • • Moderate loss fibers with large cores used for short-transmissions Low loss (very transparent) fibers are used for long-haul applications Plastics have higher attenuation than the glass fibers Plastic fibers are used in short distance fibers where more mechanical stresses are possible Irfan khan Glass Fibers • Glass is made by fusing metal oxide, sulfides or selenides. • The resulting material is a randomly connected molecular network called glass. • Glasses do not have well defined melting points • Melting point is defined as the temperature at which glass becomes fluid enough to free itself of glass bubbles. • The largest category for optical fibers consists of oxide glasses. • The most common of these oxides is the silica SiO2 which has refractive index of 1.458 at 850nm • Fluorine or various oxides such as B2O3, GeO2, or P2O5 can be doped to slightly change the refractive index for the cladding Irfan khan • Plastic material Plastic fiber has poor optical qualities as compared to glass. Plastic fibers are more economical over short distances for slower speeds. •Midway Solution Plastic-Clad Silica Fiber. The above fiber uses a high quality glass core, with a low cost plastic sheathing. clad The cost and performance of plastic-clad Silica fiber is a compromise between the all-glass and all plastic fibers. Irfan khan • Since the cladding must have a lower refractive index as compared to the core so we can chose the following options for the doped materials 1. 2. 3. 4. GeO2 – SiO2, core; SiO2 cladding P2O5-SiO2, core; SiO2 cladding SiO2 core; B2O3-SiO2 cladding GeO-B2O3-SiO2 core; B2O3-SiO2 cladding • Here the notation GeO2 – SiO2 denotes a GeO2 doped silica glass Irfan khan Properties of pure silica glass • Pure silica is referred as silica glass, fused glass or vitreous silica • Offer high resistance to deformation at high temperature as 1000oC • High resistance to breakage from thermal shock because of its low thermal expansion • Good chemical durability • High transparency in both the visible and infrared region Irfan khan ACTIVE GLASS FIBERS • Incorporating rare earth elements (atomic numbers 57 - 71) converts normal passive glass fiber into new materials with new optical and magnetic properties. • The new materials perform amplification, attenuation and phase retardation on the passing light • Doping can be carried out for silica, tellurite and halide glasses • Commonly used materials are Erbium and Neodymium Irfan khan Plastic Optical Fibers • High demand for delivering high speed services to the work station require high bandwidth graded index polymer (plastic) optical fibers (POF). • POF’s are used within the premises of user. • Fiber with core of polymethylmethacrylate referred as (PMMA POF) • Fiber with core of perfluorinated polymer is referred as PF POF • POF’s have greater attenuation as compared to glass fibers. • POF’s are tough and durable as compared to glass fibers • Modulus is two order of magnitude smaller than the glass fiber so flexible to install. • Compared with glass fiber the core diameter is 10 – 20 times larger • Inexpensive plastic injection moulding technologies can be used to fabricate connectors, splices and transceivers Irfan khan Photonic Crystal Fibers (PCF) • Demonstrated in 1990, initially called holy fiber and later called Photonic Crystal Fiber (PCF) • It has air holes run along the entire length of the fiber • Sometimes air holes act as cladding known as IndexGuiding PCF • Another form uses the band gap effect between the core as air holes and cladding known as photonic band gap fibers Irfan khan Fiber Fabrication There are two basic techniques for fiber fabrication • Vapor-phase oxidation process • Direct melt methods Direct melt methods : • Traditional glass making procedure , fibers are made from molten state of purified silicate glass. Vapor-phase oxidation process: • Highly pure vapors of metal halides (SiCl4 and GeCl4) react with oxygen to form a white powder (SiO2). • These particles are collected at the surface of the bulk glass by one of the four processes. • These rods are then sintered and called preforms. Irfan khan • The preforms are around 10 – 25mm in dia and 60 – 120cm long • Fibers are made from this preform using the fiber drawn equipment • Drawing furnace bring it to the temperature where tip becomes soft and can be pulled through take-up drum • Thickness depend on the speed of the drum • Finally it is coated with the elastic material for protection Fiber Drawing apparatus Irfan khan Outside Vapor-phase oxidation Irfan khan Vapor-Phase Axial Deposition (VAD) Irfan khan Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD) Irfan khan Plasma –Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD) Irfan khan Irfan khan Intentionally Left Blank Irfan khan Photonic crystal Fibers Initially this was called holey fiber and later known as photonic crystal fiber (PCF) or a microstructured fiber. There are two categories of photonic crystal fibers. 1. Index- Guiding PCF 2. Photonic Bandgap Fiber. Irfan khan Natural silicon dioxide SiO 2 CO Reduction Chlorination Distillation C,Cl2 FeCl 3 Silicon Tetrachloride (SiCl4) H2 ,O2 Cl 2 Quartz and quartz mineral sands Hydrolysis in the vapor phase HCl O Fine particle mist with SiO Cl2 2 Dry silicon dioxide SiO 2 Dehydration Oxidation in the vapor phase HCl Ultrapure silicon dioxide SiO 2 2 Ultra pure silicon dioxide for use in fiber manufacture and integrated circuits Irfan khan Vertical preform lathe Horizontal preform lathe Irfan khan Intentionally Left Blank Irfan khan Mechanical Properties of Fibers Two basic mechanical characteristics of glass optical fibers are: 1. Strength 2. Static fatigue Strength relates to instantaneous failure under an applied load. Static fatigue relates to the slow growth of the pre existing flaws in the glass fiber under humid conditions and tensile stress. Irfan khan Mechanical Properties of Fibers Fibers must be able to withstand : 1. Stresses 2. Strains During 1. Cable manufacturing process 2. Cable installation process 3. In service Force applied to the fiber can either impulsive or gradually varying. Irfan khan Mechanical Properties of Fibers Under applied stress: •Glass will extend elastically up to its breaking strength. •Metals can be stretched plastically well beyond their true elastic range Copper wires can be elongated plastically by more that 20 percent before they fracture. Glass fibers elongation of only 1 percent are possible before they fracture occurs. Irfan khan Microcrack model A hypothetical model of a microcrack in an optical fiber Irfan khan Mechanical Properties of Fibers Proof testing: A high assurance of fiber reliability can be provided by proof testing. In this method an optical fiber is subjected to a tensile load greater than that expected at any time during the cable manufacturing, installations, and service. Any fibers that do not pass the proof test are rejected. Irfan khan Intentionally Left Blank Irfan khan Optical fiber cable Classification on Cable Structure Standard loose buffer tube type Standard tight buffer (Bound) type Fiber Ribbon Irfan khan Classification on Cable Structure Loose buffer tube The primary coated Fiber is laid loosely in a jelly filled narrow tube to prevent changes in the fiber’s optical properties due to * Pressure *Tensile stress * Bends * Torsion *Friction Irfan khan Classification on Cable Structure Loose buffer tube Normally, there are only 4-6 fibers per tube. The tube must conform to the following requirements. * It must not deform through normal load. mechanical * It must be durable. * It must have low friction. * It must withstand reasonably rough handling during installation, without changing the fiber’s optical properties. Irfan khan Classification on Cable Structure Loose buffer tube • Area of application Loose tube fibers have been used very successfully in all areas of information transfer. Used for long distance Networks Irfan khan Classification on Cable Structure Tight Buffered Fibers The other alternative to protect the primary coated fiber is achieved by applying a thick layer of plastic directly on the 245-500 m thick primary coated fiber. Irfan khan Classification on Cable Structure Tight Buffered Fibers Primary coated fiber 245-500 m Fiber 125 2 m Color coded layer 900 m The tight buffer is color-coded according to a standard or customer’s specification. Irfan khan Classification on Cable Structure Tight Buffered Fibers • Area of application Greatest area of application is indoors as connector cables and rack cables. Local Area Networks (LAN) use almost exclusively tight buffered. Advantages They are relatively easy to deal with during installation Easily terminated with a connector. Irfan khan Classification on Cable Structure • Fiber Ribbon Technique Third relatively new technique for adding buffer is to lay several (2-12) primary coated fibers next to each other and then apply the additional coating. Three methods for ribbon technique: * Taping * Edge bonding * Encapsulating Irfan khan Classification on Cable Structure Fiber Ribbon Technique • Tapping: initial method • Edge bounding: filling the Acrylate between the gapes • Encapsulation: A layer of Acrylate is applied around the fibers Irfan khan Taping Edge Bonding Encapsulation The three most common methods of manufacturing fiber ribbon. Irfan khan Breakout Cable (In door) Simplex Cord Duplex figure – 8 / Zip Cord Irfan khan Direct Burried Cable Central strength member Jelly filled loose tube PE inner sheath Corrugated coated steel tape armour Moisture barrier sheath PE outer sheath Irfan khan Aerial cable. Irfan khan Armored outdoor cable Irfan khan A typical range of armor protection cable Irfan khan Fiber optic underwater cable Irfan khan lightweight deep-water cable. Irfan khan Cable material Cable Jackets require a veriety of materials to best serve the environment to be used in. These materials offer protection from the following concerns: 1. Mechanical 2. Chemical 3. Thermal 4. Environmental Irfan khan Cable material 1. Polyethylene (PE) A thermoplastic with good chemical and moisture resistance. Application * * Aerial Direct burried application. 2. Polyurethane (PU) A polymer with excellent abrasion resistance and low temperature flexibility. Application * Excellent for duct. Irfan khan Cable material 3. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) A thermoplastic with good flame and abrasion resistance. Application * Raceways * Duct environments 4. Teflon. A fluorocarbon / thermoplastic offers excellent properties in all cable categories except in radiation environments. More costly than other cable material. Irfan khan Cable material Kevlar An aramid strength member. It is five times stronger than steel. Buffer Jacket (Tube) Protect fiber from moisture, chemicals and mechanical stresses placed on cable during installation, and splicing. Irfan khan Cable material Central member Facilitates stranding Allows cable flexing Provides temperature stability Prevents buckling Irfan khan Cable material Strength member Primary tensile load bearing member Aramid Yarns (Kevlar) Armoring (Burried Cable) Protection from rodent attack and crushing forces. Corrugated steel tape or multiple metal strands Irfan khan Intentionally Left Blank Irfan khan