Other Ideological
Traditions
Unit 5: Anarchism, Fascism, Feminism,
Nationalism
Anarchism
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Means ‘without rule’
All political authority – especially in the form of
the state – is evil
The state epitomises sovereign, compulsory and
coercive authority
It offends the principles of freedom and
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equality
Core value – unrestricted personal autonomy
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Anarchism
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The state and its institutions are corrupt and
corrupting
The state is thus unnecessary – government is
the cause not the solution of problems
Anarchists elevate ‘natural’ order and social
harmony – optimistic view of human nature
Anarchism
A stateless society is…
 One in which free individuals manage their
own affairs through voluntary agreement and
co-operation.
 There are two rival anarchist traditions
developing this view
1. Socialist, communitarian
2. Liberal, individualist
Anarchism
The Socialist view:
 Derives from collectivist anarchist tradition
 Kropotkin – ‘mutual aid’ – people’s natural
relationships are sympathetic ones
 Importance of social equality and common
ownership – Proudhon, ‘property is theft’.
Anarchism
The Individualist view:
 Idea of sovereign individual
 Individual actions – conscience/pursuit of selfinterest – should not be constrained by any
collective body or public authority
 Overlaps with libertarianism
 Anarcho-capitalism – strong belief in the
market, which is self-regulating
Fascism
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Core theme – idea of organically unified
national community – ‘strength through unity’.
The individual is nothing
Individual identity absorbed into the community
The fascist hero dedicates his life to the glory of
his nation or race
Constitutes a revolt against ideals of French
Revolution (‘1789 is dead’)
Fascism
Rejects following values:
 Rationalism
 Progress
 Freedom
 Equality
Fascism
Elevates following values:
 Struggle
 Leadership
 Power
 Heroism
 War
Fascism
It often seems to be defined by what it is
opposed to – an ‘anti’ ideology
Contradictory –
 Freedom means submission
 Democracy means dictatorship
 Progress means struggle
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Fascism
There is a problem in identifying core principles in
fascism.
Italian Fascism and German Nazism have been
variously treated as two common manifestations
of fascism, but with obvious variables, or as two
distinct ideological traditions.
Fascism - Mussolini
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Extreme form of statism
Totalitarian state
‘Everything for the state; nothing against the state;
nothing outside the state’ – Gentile
Nationalist – militaristic and expansionist
Fascism - Nazism
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Racialist – Aryanism and anti-semitism
Nationalist – militaristic and expansionist
Socialist – collective identity and social unity
pursued through project of national rebirth
Struggle between states – social darwinistic
Fascism and anti-rationalism
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Human beings are motivated by powerful drives
and urges, not by rational calculation
Reasoned analysis cannot make sense of the
world
Fascism appeals to the emotions and instincts of
the masses (parades, symbols)
Emphasis on action over reflection or analysis
Stress upon physical force – personal and
national
Fascism and democracy
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Democracy has many interpretations
Fascists do not believe in liberal democracy
Belief in totalitarian democracy – the leader has
a monopoly of ideological wisdom, and thus his
rule is government for the people.
Operates through charismatic authority
Feminism
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A political movement that seeks to advance the
social and political role of women
Unequal treatment of women should be
overturned
Discussion of ‘liberation’ and ‘equality’
‘Equality’ – for some feminists – simply means
being like men
‘Liberation’ means the freedom to act as
individuals, without suppression by men
Feminism
Patriarchy –
 Refers to the totality of women’s oppression
 Highlights political importance of gender
 Refers to socially imposed (as opposed to
biological) differences between men and women
 Gender is thus a political construct, based upon
stereotyped understandings
Feminism
Characterised by diverse theories:
 Liberal Feminism – commitment to
individualism – desire for equal rights;
 Socialist Feminism – links female subordination
to capitalist modes of production – economic
significance of women confined to domestic
life;
 Radical Feminism – ‘personal is political’ – calls
for radical social restructuring – has itself
splintered into diverse traditions, leading to
accusations that it lacks coherence and unity.
Feminism – past questions
Short Answers:
 Why have radical feminists proclaimed that ‘the
personal is the political’? (2002)
 Why have feminists stressed the distinction
between sex and gender? (2003)
 How and why have feminists used the concept
of patriarchy? (2004)
Feminism – past questions
Essay Questions –
 ‘Feminism is characterised more by
disagreement than agreement’. Discuss. (2001)
 Why have radical feminists criticised liberal
feminists? (2002)
 ‘There are liberal feminists, socialist feminists
and radical feminists, but no conservative
feminists’. Discuss (2004)
Nationalism – past questions
Short Answers –
 Distinguish between nations and states, and
explain why the two terms have been confused.
(2002)
 Distinguish between nations and races and
explain why the two terms are often confused.
(2003)
 In what ways is nationalism compatible with
liberalism? (2004)
Nationalism
What is a ‘nation’ ?
 A cultural entity – groups of people sharing the
same language, religion, tradition, culture.
 Nations are not, however, culturally
homogenous – there is considerable dispute as
to what are the most significant defining
characteristics.
 This leads to the definition of a nation often
being more subjectively described as the
possession of ‘a national conscience’.
Nationalism – defining a state
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Such subjectivity in defining a state can thus lead
to a confusion of terms – e.g.
Since many nations are also states (the nationstate), there is confusion between the cultural
entity of the nation and the political entity of
the state;
Since some right-wing nationalists include race,
or ethnicity, in their definition of a nation, the
separate nature of race as a biological
characteristic, and nation as a civic or cultural
entity, is confused.
Nationalism
Compatibility with other ideologies –
 Nationalism’s distinctive belief is that the nation
is the central principle of political organisation.
 How a nation might be established or
administered is open to debate.
 Thus, nationalism draws on many different
ideological strands, creating considerable
diversity.
Nationalism
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We have everything from liberal nationalism
(nations regarded as moral entities with
distinctive rights – e.g. self-government) to
conservative nationalism and expansionist
nationalism.
Depending on which ideological tradition you
are using, a brand of nationalism can almost
certainly be found to be compatible with it
Nationalism
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The only exception is socialism, a fundamentally
internationalist ideology.
Even here, socialist leaders in post-colonial
countries can be seen to have used nationalism
to generate support (e.g. Castro in Cuba, Nasser
in Egypt).
Nationalism – past questions
Essay Questions –
 ‘Fascism is nothing more than an extreme form
of nationalism’. Discuss. (2002)
 ‘Nationalism is inherently expansionist and
destructive’. Discuss. (2003)
 ‘To what extent can fascism be viewed as a
blend of nationalism and socialism?’ (2004)
Nationalism in the UK Today
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Analyse the different forms of nationalism that
operate within the UK. (2002)
Is nationalism in the UK progressive or
reactionary? (2003)
Is the notion of British nationalism any longer
meaningful? (2004)