Chapter 8
Motivation: Cognitive and
Behavioral Theories
and Techniques
Learning Goals
• Describe how people develop expectations
about what will happen to them
• Appreciate differences in the values people
place on the results of their behavior
• Understand the differences between
extrinsic and intrinsic outcomes
• Discuss the role of equity in human
motivation and behavior
Learning Goals (Cont.)
• Use the techniques of goal setting
• Describe the powerful technique of
behavior modification
• Discuss some international aspects of
motivation
Chapter Overview
•
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction
Expectancy Theory
Equity Theory
Goal Setting Theory
Behavior Modification
International Aspects of the Cognitive and
Behavioral Theories of Motivation
• Ethical Issues in the Cognitive and
Behavioral Theories of Motivation
Introduction
• Four motivation theories that differ from
those in Chapter 7
• Three use cognitive processes to explain
human behavior
• The fourth focuses on observable behavior,
not cognitive processes
Introduction
• Cognitive theories
– Expectancy Theory: describes internal
processes of choice among different behaviors
– Equity Theory: describes how and why people
react when they feel unfairly treated
– Goal Setting Theory: focuses on how to set
goals for people to reach
• Behavioral Theory
– Behavior Modification: focuses on observable
behavior, not internal psychological processes
Expectancy Theory
• Assumptions
– Forces in the environment and person interact
to affect behavior
– People choose among different courses of
action
– People make choices based on preferences for
outcomes of actions
– Choices are rational; based on perceived value
of outcomes of actions
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• People have different preferences for
different outcomes
• Reflect on your preferences for different
course grades
– You will behave in a way to earn your preferred
grade
– You also must believe you will receive your
desired grade
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Basic concepts
• Expectancy
– Subjective probability that a person’s action
will be followed by an outcome
– Ranges from 0 to 1
• 0 = no connection between an act and an outcome
• 1 = connection between the act and the outcome is
certain
• .50 = 50-50 chance that an act will be followed by
an outcome
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Basic concepts (cont.)
– Two types of expectancy
• Effort-performance expectancy: person’s belief
that effort leads to a desired performance level
(E
P)
• Performance-outcome expectancy: person’s
belief that performance will be followed by some
outcome (P
O)
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Simple Expectancy Theory model
Effort
Performance
View as flows through a pipeline
Outcomes
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Basic concepts (cont.)
– Valence: preference people have among
outcomes
• Attraction (+)
• Indifference (0)
• Avoidance (-)
– Range: -3 to +3; shows degree of attraction or
avoidance a person associates with an outcome
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Relationships between expectancies and
valences
– People perceive a connection between effort
and desired performance level
– People have different preferences for different
outcomes
– People also perceive a link between that
performance level and an outcome
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Formula showing relationships
n
Motivation = ƒ  (E
P)i (P
i=1
O)i  Vi
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Multiple outcomes are possible for behavior
• Outcomes: something positively valued (a
raise) or negatively valued (being fired)
• Person's perception of the valence of all
outcomes for a behavior decides the choice
of behavior
– Go toward positively valent outcomes
– Avoid negatively valent outcomes
– May consider several possible outcomes at once
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Expectancies and valences combine
multiplicatively
• Importance of a value of 0 for an
expectancy or a valence
– Positively valent outcome but expectancy = 0:
little motivation
– Indifferent to an outcome (valence = 0): not
highly motivated even with expectancy = 1
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Motivation = expectancy x valence
Effort
Valence
Performance
Expectancy
Outcomes
Expectancy
Text book Figure 8.1
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Types of outcomes
– Extrinsic outcomes: what people receive from
someone else for their performance
– Intrinsic outcomes: what people give to
themselves for their performance
• Types of motivation
– Extrinsic motivation (“pull”)
– Intrinsic motivation (“push”)
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Extrinsic
outcomes
Effort
Performance
Performance and different outcomes
Intrinsic
outcomes
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Extrinsic outcomes
– Pay increases, promotion, supervisor's praise,
quality awards, larger office space
– Managers give or withhold extrinsic outcomes
for employee performance
– Employee controls the performance level but
not directly control the outcome
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Extrinsic outcomes (cont.)
–
–
–
–
Time delay of extrinsic outcomes
Example: annual or semiannual pay increases
Can reduce motivation effect
Related to many different needs: physiological,
esteem, self-actualization
• Provides food and shelter
• Sign of accomplishment
• Gives feedback about performance
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Intrinsic outcomes
–
–
–
–
More individual control
Little time delay; increases motivation effect
Managers do not directly deliver them
Managers can provide opportunities for people
to experience intrinsic outcomes.
– Associated mainly with higher order needs such
as self-actualization
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Blockages between effort and performance
– Individual blockages
•
•
•
•
Skills and abilities: perceived and real
Task difficulty
Experience with task or problem
Can increase or decrease the effort-performance
expectancy
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
• Blockages between effort and performance
(cont.)
– Organizational blockages
•
•
•
•
Resources
Training
Conflict
Organizational design
– Can increase or decrease the effort-performance
expectancy
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Individual blockages
Effort
Performance
Outcomes
Organizational blockages
Effect of blockages: view as flows through a pipeline
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Individual
blockages
Effort
Expanded Expectancy
Theory Model
Extrinsic
outcomes
Performance
Intrinsic
outcomes
Organizational
blockages
Text book Figure 8.2
Equity Theory
• Focuses on exchange relationships
• Perception of equitable or inequitable
exchange
• Exchange relationships: employeremployee, members of a team
• Some criticism of underlying research
• Discussion of elements most useful to
managers
• Balance the ratios of inputs to outcomes in
exchange relationships
Equity Theory (Cont.)
• Inputs
– Characteristics and behaviors the person brings
to the exchange relationship
• Training, education, age, gender, ethnicity
• Level of effort and performance
– Person defines the relevant or important inputs
– Possible basis of conflict in employer-employee
exchange
Equity Theory (Cont.)
• Outputs
– What the person gets from the exchange
relationship
– Positive outcomes: pay, fringe benefits,
competent supervision, friendly coworkers
– Negative outcomes: close, controlling
supervision; monotonous job
– Person decides positive and negative character
of outcomes
Equity Theory (Cont.)
• Compare ratio of outcomes to inputs to
perceived ratio of another person or group
• Can also compare to
– Similar ratios in the past
– Standard of fairness
• Terms
– Person: individual making the comparison
– Other: object of comparison
Equity Theory (Cont.)
• Equity: ratios roughly balance
– Person’s perception of equal ratios
– Example: performance and rewards of self and
coworker
Equity Theory (Cont.)
• Inequity: unequal ratios
– Negative inequity: underpayment
– Positive inequity: overpayment
– Amount of inequity: proportional to the size of
perceived discrepancy in the ratios
– Point of inequity experience is higher for
positive inequity than negative inequity
• Attribute some amount of overpayment to "good
fortune” or
• a just reward for high levels of effort in the past
Equity Theory (Cont.)
A state of equity
Person
Other
Outcomes
Outcomes
Inputs
=
Inputs
Equity Theory (Cont.)
Negative inequity (“underpayment”)
Person
Other
Outcomes
Outcomes
Inputs
<
Inputs
Equity Theory (Cont.)
Positive inequity (“overpayment”)
Person
Other
Outcomes
Outcomes
Inputs
>
Inputs
Equity Theory (Cont.)
Perceived
inequity
Tension
within the
individual
Motivation
to reduce
tension
Responses to inequity
Responses
Equity Theory (Cont.)
• Responses to inequity
– Change inputs
• Negative inequity: reduce effort or quality of work
• Positive inequity: increase effort or quality of work
– Change outcomes: ask for increase in pay or
status symbols, such as larger office
– Cognitively distort own inputs and outcomes
• Negative inequity: reduce perceived importance of
job
• Positive inequity: increase perceived responsibility
in job
Equity Theory (Cont.)
• Responses to inequity
– Withdrawal
• Permanent: leave organization
• Temporary: increased absences
– Acting on other: an unfortunately violent
possibility
– Cognitively distort inputs and outcomes of
other: overpaid; see more importance in other’s
task
– Change reference groups: shift comparison
other to someone else
Equity Theory (Cont.)
• Equity sensitivity
– Equity sensitives: react as predicted by equity
theory
– Benevolents: accept negative inequity
– Entitleds: accept positive inequity with no
feelings of guilt
Expectancy Theory and
Equity Theory Combined
Individual
blockages
Effort
Extrinsic
outcomes
Performance
Organizational
blockages
Intrinsic
outcomes
Perception of
equitable
outcomes
Satisfaction
Guidelines Suggested by
Expectancy and Equity Theory
• Tie rewards to performance
• Preferably tie them to performance close in
time
• Use valued rewards (valence)
• Watch equity and fairness of reward
distribution
• Incentive: looks to the future
• Reward: looks to the past
Goal Setting Theory
“Goals that are specific, challenging, reachable, and accepted
by a person lead to higher performance than goals that are
“fuzzy,” unchallenging, not reachable, or not accepted (p. 142).”
• Goal specificity: what, how much, when
• Acceptance of goal important, but how one
gets acceptance is not
• Participation in goal setting increases
information about how to reach goal
Goal Setting Theory (Cont.)
• Performance feedback and some rewards
improve performance
• Goals are dynamic not static
• Provide training and resources to help
people reach goals
Behavior Modification
• Differs from expectancy and equity theory
because it does not use cognitive processes
• Focuses only on observable behavior
• Assumptions:
– People go toward positive outcomes
– People avoid negative outcomes
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Principles
– Contingent reinforcement: consequence has
strongest effect when delivered after desired
behavior occurs
– Immediate reinforcement: consequence has
strongest effect if delivered immediately after
behavior occurs
– Reinforcement size: large consequences have
stronger effects than small ones
– Reinforcement deprivation: longer a person
is deprived of a consequence, the stronger its
effect on behavior
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Approaches to affecting behavior
– Managers try to shape behavior by applying or
withdrawing consequences
• Positive consequences
• Negative consequences
• Four approaches
– Positive reinforcement
– Punishment
– Extinction
– Negative reinforcement
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.)
– Positive reinforcement
• Applies a positive event to increase the frequency or
strength of desirable behavior
• Example: praise, recognition, sales commissions
• Increases the likelihood the person will repeat the
behavior in the future
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.)
– Punishment
• Applies a negative event to decrease the frequency
of undesirable behavior
– Reprimand
– Time off without pay
• Punishment stops behavior but does not change its
direction
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.)
– Extinction: withdraws a positive consequence
to decrease frequency of undesirable behavior
• Punishment and extinction have the same target-undesirable behavior
• Differ sharply in other respects
• Punishment applies a negative event to a behavior;
extinction withdraws a positive event
Disruptive staff member in a meeting. Encourage other
staff members to not laugh at the disruptive member’s behavior.
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.)
– Negative reinforcement
• Increases frequency of desirable behavior by
withdrawing a negative event
• Person tries to escape from or avoid a negative event
Supervisor scolds a person for being late for work.
Person "escapes" from the negative event by showing
up for work on time in the future.
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Schedules of reinforcement
– Continuous reinforcement
• Apply a consequence after each behavior
• Example: thanking someone each time a person
does something for you
• Behavior will occur at a steady high rate as long as
the reinforcement continues
• Behavior stops quickly in the absence of the
reinforcer
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Schedules of reinforcement (cont.)
– Intermittent reinforcement
• Apply a consequence based on time between
behaviors or number of behaviors
• Produce more enduring changes in behavior than
continuous schedules
• Four intermittent reinforcement schedules
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.)
– Fixed ratio
• Apply a consequence after a fixed number of
behaviors
• Example: sales commissions
• Behavioral response: high and steady; stops
quickly when the consequence is withheld
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.)
– Variable ratio
• Applies consequence after a varying number of
behaviors
• Example: complimenting employees for good
performance, but not praising each occurrence of
good performance
• Behavioral response: high, steady, enduring
• Uncertainty of variable ratio schedule may add to
the lasting quality of behavior
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.)
– Fixed interval
• Applies consequence after a constant time between
behaviors
• Example: receiving a paycheck at the end of a pay
period
• Behavioral response: strongest just before the
consequence
• A fixed interval paycheck will not have much effect
on job performance
• Can strongly reinforce organization membership
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.)
– Variable interval
• Applies a consequence after different periods
between behavior
• Example: a manager randomly praising employee
performance when warranted
• Behavioral response: strong and steady
• Behavior endures; not extinguished easily
• Uncertainty of reinforcement may contribute to the
enduring quality of the behavior
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Shaping
– Technique for gradually changing a person's
behavior while aiming for a target behavior
• Desired change in a person's behavior cannot
happen in one step
• Shaping moves a person's behavior toward the target
a step at a time
• Example: an employee needs to learn a
new job or a new procedure
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Shaping (cont.)
– Use positive reinforcement on a continuous
schedule as employee gradually learns
– Treat behavior that does not move toward the
target with extinction: withhold praise
– Once employee reaches the target, the manager
uses an intermittent reinforcement schedule
– When behavior is well in place, can give
reinforcement less often
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Side effects of punishment
– Many negative side effects
– People may also perceive extinction as
punishment, possibly resulting in side effects
– Side effects of extinction should be less strong
than those of punishment
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Side effects of punishment (cont)
– Punishment stops behavior temporarily
– Does not cause the person to adopt desirable
behavior
– Undesirable behavior often returns when the
source of punishment is not present
– Less potent as a shaping tool than positive
reinforcement
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Side effects of punishment (cont.)
– Emotional reactions to punishment
• Anger
• Hostility toward source
• Sabotage of equipment and work process
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
• Side effects of punishment (cont.)
– Climate of distrust between manager and
subordinates
– Undermines manager's ability to shape behavior
– Inflexible behavior particularly when applied in
early employment period
New employee who is reprimanded after challenging
a boss's decisions is unlikely to engage in that behavior later.
International Aspects of the
Cognitive and Behavioral
Theories of Motivation
• Two assumptions that could restrict use of
this chapter’s theories outside the U.S.
– Individual controls decisions about future
actions
– Manager can deliberately shape the behavior of
people
International Aspects of the
Cognitive and Behavioral
Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
• Both assumptions reflect U.S. values of free
will, individualism, individual control
• Cultural contrasts
– Muslim managers believe something happens
mainly because God wills it to happen
– Hong Kong Chinese believe luck plays a role in
all events
International Aspects of the
Cognitive and Behavioral
Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
• Expectancy Theory's validity in other
cultures
– Japanese female life insurance sales
representatives responded to commission
system as expected
– Russian textile workers
• Linked valued extrinsic rewards to worker
performance
• Productivity increased as the theory predicts
International Aspects of the
Cognitive and Behavioral
Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
• Equity Theory: complex cross-cultural
effects
– Reward allocation decisions followed equity
theory premises in U.S., Russian, and Chinese
samples
– Other studies
• Chinese emphasized seniority in their reward
decisions more than Americans.
• Eastern European transition economies: endorsed
positive inequity more than American students
International Aspects of the
Cognitive and Behavioral
Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
• Research on Locke's Goal Setting Theory in
several countries
• Results consistent with U.S. work that
formulated the theory
• Some cultural differences
– U.S. students not affected by how goals were
set
– Israeli students performed better when goals
were set participatively; consistent with cultural
of cooperation
Ethical Issues and the
Cognitive and Behavioral
Theories of Motivation
• Should a manager tell employees that she or
he will try to affect their behavior?
• Is it ethical to create perceived negative
inequity with the hope of forcing out an
employee?
• Should managers use knowledge of human
motivation to affect people's behavior in an
ethical direction?
• Should that effort include punishment?
Ethical Issues and the
Cognitive and Behavioral
Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
• Behavior Modification
– Should humans be subjected to the type of
control offered by Behavior Modification?
– Who will control the people doing the
controlling?
– What are the ends or purposes of the control?
– Is it right for managers to use Behavior
Modification?
Ethical Issues and the
Cognitive and Behavioral
Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
• Critics have said "no.”
• Skinner responded by noting that the idea of
no control is an illusion
– Aspects of people's environments have always
controlled their behavior
– Behavior Modification offers positive
reinforcement
– An alternative to the widespread use of
negative forms of control (punishment)
Ethical Issues and the
Cognitive and Behavioral
Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
• Counter control
– If target person does not respond to the
consequences, they must be rearranged and
tried again
– Controller and target person interact
– Target of the control may actually control the
behavior of the person doing the controlling
Ethical Issues and the
Cognitive and Behavioral
Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
• Who will control those doing the
controlling?
– No foolproof answer
– Few doubt that Behavior Modification can be
used for evil or good
– You decide whether your goals are ethical, if
you use Behavior Modification