Personality
Chapter 12
AP Psychology
Alice F. Short
Hilliard Davidson High School
Chapter Preview
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Psychodynamic Perspectives
Humanistic Perspectives
Trait Perspectives
Personological and Life Story Perspectives
Social Cognitive Perspectives
Biological Perspectives
Personality Assessment
Personality and Health and Wellness
Personality
• personality - a pattern of enduring distinctive
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that
characterize the way an individual adapts to
the world
– Psychologist who study personality focus on the
enduring traits and qualities we demonstrate over
time.
Psychodynamic Perspectives
psychodynamic perspective – theoretical views
emphasizing that personality is primarily
unconscious (beyond awareness)
– how the unconscious impacts personality
– unconscious because they MUST be
• understanding personality involves exploring
the symbolic meanings of behavior and the
unconscious mind
• early childhood experiences sculpt the
individual’s personality
Psychodynamic
Approach: Freud
• Known as the founding
father of the
psychodynamic approach
• Believed that there are
unlearned biological
instincts (especially of a
sexual and/or aggressive
nature) that can occur
early in life and these
instincts influence how a
person thinks, feels, and
behaves
• Had a couch 
• “I cannot think of any need in childhood as strong as
the need for a father's protection.”
• “The great question that has never been answered,
and which I have not yet been able to answer,
despite my thirty years of research into the feminine
soul, is 'What does a woman want?‘”
• “Love and work are the cornerstones of our
humanness.”
• “The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a
knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind.”
• “America is the most grandiose experiment the world
has seen, but, I am afraid, it is not going to be a
success.”
• “Dreams are often most profound when they seem
the most crazy.”
• “I have found little that is 'good' about human beings
on the whole. In my experience most of them are
trash, no matter whether they publicly subscribe to
this or that ethical doctrine or to none at all. That is
something that you cannot say aloud, or perhaps
even think.”
• Men are more moral than they think and far more
immoral than they can imagine.”
Freud
Quotes
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
• Freud and Psychoanalysis
– sex drive – main determinant of personality
development
– sex = organ pleasure (anything pleasurable is sex)
– Freud: places stronger biological emphasis than the
sociocultural, humanistic and social cognitive
• Hysteria
– physical symptoms without physical cause
– overdetermined – multiple unconscious causes
• Iceberg Analogy of Human Personality
Personality
Structure
• Freud
Personality Structure
• Id (the “I”)
– instincts and reservoir of psychic energy
– pleasure principle
• can be the pleasure of punching someone in the face that
annoys you
• Ego
– deals with the demands of reality
• reality principle
– balances the needs of id, superego and reality
• your internal referee
• Superego (the “above-I”)
– moral branch of personality; “conscience”
– can make you feel good or bad
A SHORT ACTIVITY
Activity Handout 12.1
• Rachel is walking to class and the late bell rang
two minutes ago. As she walks into her class, she
stumbles and her books go flying everywhere.
Out of one of the books is a note to a boy that
Rachel has secretly liked for a long time. The boy
picks up the note and reads the top line and then
hands it back to Rachel. She is so embarrassed.
– Id:
– Ego:
– Superego:
A SHORT ACTIVITY
Activity Handout 12.1
• Rachel is walking to class and the late bell rang
two minutes ago. As she walks into her class, she
stumbles and her books go flying everywhere.
Out of one of the books is a note to a boy that
Rachel has secretly liked for a long time. The boy
picks up the note and reads the top line and then
hands it back to Rachel. She is so embarrassed.
– Id: scream, runaway
– Ego: calmly collect belongings and proceed to class
– Superego: judge Rachel for being so foolish
A SHORT ACTIVITY
Activity Handout 12.1
• Jake is going on his first date with a really popular
girl. He still can’t believe that she agreed to go
out with him. During the movie they are sitting so
close that their legs are touching and he so badly
wants to hold her hand and kiss her, but he isn’t
sure how she would react. He takes a chance and
does it and she looks at him and then gets up and
walks out.
– Id:
– Ego:
– Superego:
A SHORT ACTIVITY
Activity Handout 12.1
• Jake is going on his first date with a really popular girl.
He still can’t believe that she agreed to go out with
him. During the movie they are sitting so close that
their legs are touching and he so badly wants to hold
her hand and kiss her, but he isn’t sure how she would
react. He takes a chance and does it and she looks at
him and then gets up and walks out.
– Id: kiss her more
– Ego: apologize to her
– Superego: feel guilty
A SHORT ACTIVITY
Activity Handout 12.1
• Jessica is babysitting for the same family she baby sits
for every Friday night. This Friday night, however, she
invited her boyfriend over and they are snuggled on
the couch, watching a movie. The parents come home
early and find Jessica and her boyfriend wrapped in
each others’ arms and sound asleep. They wake them
up and are so upset because they felt as though Jessica
was irresponsible. Jessica is really upset and not sure
what to think or say.
– Id:
– Ego:
– Superego:
A SHORT ACTIVITY
Activity Handout 12.1
• Jessica is babysitting for the same family she baby sits
for every Friday night. This Friday night, however, she
invited her boyfriend over and they are snuggled on
the couch, watching a movie. The parents come home
early and find Jessica and her boyfriend wrapped in
each others’ arms and sound asleep. They wake them
up and are so upset because they felt as though Jessica
was irresponsible. Jessica is really upset and not sure
what to think or say.
– Id: spend more time with boyfriend
– Ego: apologize to the parents and promise not to do it
again
– Superego: feel guilty
A SHORT Time to Ponder
Small Group Discussion
• Do you think that the iceberg analogy works well
to describe your personality. Why?
• Why do you think Freud came up with this
personality structure with an id, ego and
superego?
• How much do you think your childhood
experience will influence your adulthood?
• How does Freud’s definition of sex differ from
other people’s definitions? (reference textbook or
notes)
A SHORT Task:
Explaining the Id, the Ego and the Superego
Activity Handout 12.2
• Think of your three closest friends. Write down their names in the space
provided and then put a check next to the space of the personality trait
that your friend has. They can have more than one personality trait. After
completing every one, go back, and in the space provided briefly explain
what this tells you about your friends.
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Name:
Neuroticism: ____
Extraversion: ____
Openness to Experience: ____
Agreeableness: ____
Conscientiousness: ____
– Explanation: Pay special attention to this part! You will be discussing this
with a neighbor and they will be evaluating how accurate you are.
Explaining the Id, the Ego and the Superego
Activity Handout 12.2
• Think of your three closest friends/Disney princesses/fictional
characters/someone you create. Write down their names in the
space provided and then put a check next to the space of the
personality trait that your friend has. They can have more than one
personality trait. After completing every one, go back, and in the
space provided briefly explain what this tells you about your
friends.
–
–
–
–
–
–
Name:
Neuroticism: ____
Extraversion: ____
Openness to Experience: ____
Agreeableness: ____
Conscientiousness: ____
– Explanation:
Explaining the Id, the Ego and the Superego
Activity Handout 12.1
• Neuroticism: anxious, insecure, self-pitying
• Extraversion: sociable, fun-loving, affectionate
• Openness: Imaginative, interested in variety,
independent
• Agreeableness: softhearted, trusting, helpful
• Conscientiousness: organized, careful, disciplined
• IN CLASS ACTIVITY: Trade and discuss with a
neighbor to see if they successfully explained the
characteristics. (Alternate between people)
Defense Mechanisms
• conflict between the id, ego, and superego
results in anxiety
• defense mechanisms reduce anxiety by
unconsciously distorting reality
– not necessarily unhealthy
• Repression (defense mechanism #1)
– foundation for all defense mechanisms
– push unacceptable impulses out of awareness
Defense Mechanisms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
repression
rationalization
displacement
sublimation
projection
reaction formation
denial
regression
A SHORT Activity
• “AP Psych – Ch 12 – Defense Mechanism Activity”
• Count students off by the number 8. Hand each
group there assignment.
• Take approximately 15-20 minutes to prepare to
present on your assigned defense mechanism.
• Present!! (see next slide)
Mini-Presentations
1. State assigned definition and explanation.
2. State any other defense mechanisms with
which yours may be confused (if any), and
explain how you can identify yours in
comparison.
3. Provide example(s) to class.
– one narrative example per note card – don’t
include answer anywhere in narrative
4. Answer any questions.
1. repression
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pushes unacceptable impulse
out of awareness
application: forgetting details of
traumatic event
Defense
Mechanisms
2. rationalization
–
replace less acceptable motive with a more acceptable motive
3. displacement (feeling from unacceptable  more
acceptable)
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shifts feelings toward an unacceptable object to another, more
acceptable object
4. sublimation
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replaces an unacceptable impulse with a socially acceptable
one
application: taking socially unaccepted feelings (like
aggression) and putting them towards something socially
accepted (sports)
application: liking violence  becoming a soldier / playing
video games
5. projection
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Defense
Mechanisms
attributes personal shortcomings,
problems, and faults to others
application: you cheat  you accuse
significant other of cheating/wanting to cheat
6. reaction formation
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transforms an unacceptable motive into its opposite
looking at pornography  becoming a vocal advocate against
pornography
Eliot Spitzer
7. denial
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refuses to acknowledge anxiety-producing realities
working on bomb squad  not worrying about safety
8. regression
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seeks the security of an earlier developmental period in the face
of stress
seeking your parents / childhood bedroom for comfort in
adulthood
adopting childlike characteristics
Defense Mechanisms
Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanism can be beneficial to psychological health!
Freud: Psychosexual Stages
• erogenous zones – parts of the body that have especially strong pleasuregiving qualities at particular stages of development
– Freud: adult personality shaped by conflict b/w these early sources of pleasure
and the demands of reality
• Oral Stage: 0-18 Months
– infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth
• Anal Stage: 18-36 Months
– child’s pleasure involves eliminative functions
• Phallic Stage: 3-6 Years
– child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals
– Oedipal complex – according to Freud, a boy’s intense desire to replace his
father and enjoy the affections of his mother
– castration anxiety – the boy’s intense fear of being mutilated by his father
• reduce conflict  identifies with father, adopts male gender role
– girls: castration complete  penis envy
• Freud believed that a penis was necessary for the full development of the superego;
thus, females are morally inferior to men.
Psychosexual Stages
fixation - remaining locked in particular developmental stage (not a defense mechanism)
sublimation – replacing an unacceptable impulse with a social acceptable one
reaction formation – transforming an unacceptable motive into its opposite
Psychosexual Stages (cont.)
• Latency Stage: 6 Years - Puberty
– psychic “time-out”
– interest in sexuality is repressed
• Genital Stage: Adolescence and Adulthood
– sexual reawakening
– source of sexual pleasure is someone else
– 2 hallmarks for maturity: love and work
• fixation - remain locked in particular
developmental stage (e.g., anal retentive)
– CAREFUL: This is NOT a defense mechanism!
Fixation
• Oral Stage Fixation
– biting nails and pencils
• Anal Stage Fixation
– keeping home and workspace spotless, arranged
in specific and organized way, agitated if
something is moved
• Phallic Stage Fixation
Dissenters and Revisionists
• sexuality – not pervasive force behind
personality
• early experience – not as powerful as Freud
thought
• importance of conscious thought
• sociocultural influences
• Karen Horney’s Sociocultural
Approach
Dissenters
and
– both sexes envy the attributes of
the other
Revisionists
• women might envy the penis, but what
they really want is the status bestowed
on those who have one
– need for security, not sex, is primary motivator
• Carl Jung’s Analytical Theory
– collective unconscious – the deepest, impersonal layer
of the conscious mind that is shared by all humans
• archetypes – emotionally laden ideas and images that have
rich and symbolic meanings for all people are archetypes
(expresses the collective unconscious)
– predisposition to respond the environment in particular ways
– persona – can be adopted in different circumstances
A SHORT Time to Ponder
• Explain how you think the time period and
culture influenced both Freud’s and Horney’s
views.
• How do you think your time period and
culture influence your views?
• Alfred Adler’s Individual
Psychology
– individual psychology – Adler’s
view that people are motivated
by purposes and goals
– perfection, not pleasure, is key
motivator
• compensation - people desire to
overcome their perceived
shortcomings (replace feelings of
inferiority with feelings of
superiority)
– birth order = important to
personality development
• middle child = best
Dissenters
and
Revisionists
Evaluating Psychodynamic Theory
• Criticisms
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too much emphasis on early experiences
too much faith in unconscious mind’s control
too much emphasis on sexual instincts
theory can not be tested
too much loyalty to Freud (serious)
• Contributions
– importance of childhood experiences
– development proceeds in stages
– role of unconscious processes
Humanistic Perspectives
• humanistic perspective - emphasis on a person’s
capacity for personal growth and positive human
qualities
– “third force” psychology – stressed neither Freudian
drives nor the stimulus-response principles of
behaviorism
– assumption: human nature = essentially good
– innate ability to cope with stress, control lives, and
bring about positive outcomes
– Individual = process of change
– humanistic counseling
• evaluate self
• not depending on opinion of others
Humanistic
Perspectives
• Abraham Maslow
– third force psychology
• not Freudian drives
• not behaviorism
(stimulus-response)
– self-actualization – the
motivation to develop one’s
full potential as a human being
• spontaneous, creative, possessing a childlike capacity for awe
• peak experiences/moments – breathtaking moments of spiritual
insight
• biased since focus was on highly successful individuals (Thomas
Jefferson, Eleanor Roosevelt, William James, etc.)
Humanistic Perspective
• Carl Rogers
– research led to modern studies:
personal growth and
self-determination
– unconditional positive regard – Roger’s construct referring
to the individual’s need to be accepted, valued, and treated
positively regardless of his or her behavior
• conditions of worth – the standards that the individual must live up
to in order to receive positive regard from others
• self-concept – our conscious representation of who we are and who
we wish to become
– optimally: reflects our genuine, innate desires
– : can be influenced by conditions of worth
– empathy
– genuineness
– born with raw ingredients for fulfilling life  need right
conditions to thrive
Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives
• Contributions
– self-perception is key to personality
– consider the positive aspects of human nature
– emphasize conscious experience
• Criticisms
– too optimistic about human nature
– promotes self-love and narcissism
A SHORT Time to Ponder
• Can changing your feelings about yourself
increase your happiness?
• Do you think that the humanistic approach
promotes self-love and narcissism?
Trait Perspectives
• Trait
– an enduring disposition that leads to characteristic
responses
– traits are the building blocks of personality
• Trait Theories – theoretical views stressing that
personality consists of broad, enduring
dispositions (traits) that tend to to lead to
characteristic responses
– people can be described by their typical behavior
– strong versus weak tendencies
• “high” or “low” on traits
Trait Perspectives
• Gordon Allport
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father of American personality psychology
personality understood through traits
behavior consistent across situations
lexical approach  4500 traits
• W. T. Norman
– factor analysis – statistical procedure (here, to categorize)
– five factor model
• identifies which traits go together in terms of how they are related
– big five factors of personality – the five broad traits that are
thought to describe the main dimensions of personality:
neuroticism (emotional instability), extraversion, openness to
experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
– broad traits – main dimensions of personality
Five Factor Model of Personality:
OCEAN
A SHORT Time to Ponder: Do you think that there
should be another trait here?
Five Factor Model of Personality
• Do the big five show up in the assessment of
personality in cultures around the world?
• Do the big five personality traits show up in
animals?
Evaluating Trait Perspectives
• HEXACO model – incorporates sixth
dimension: honesty/humility (moral
dimensions of personality
• Contributions
– traits influence health, cognitions, career success,
and interpersonal relations
• Criticisms
– ignores the role of the situation in behavior
– ignores nuances of an individual’s personality
TED Talks
• Online Dating broken down!
Personological and Life Story Perspectives
• personological and life story perspectives - focusing on an
individual’s life history or life story
• Henry Murray
– thank you for making Criminal Minds possible
– personology: the study of the whole person
• created first profile: Hitler (predicted suicide)
– motives are largely unconscious (22 different needs)
• need for achievement
• need for affiliation
• need for power
– thematic apperception test (TAT) – w/ Christiana Morgan
• need for achievement, affiliation, and power
– less interested in specific traits
Personological and Life Story
Perspectives
• David Winter (2005)
– Sate of Union Addresses
• Achievement (Carter) – judged as less successful
• Power (Kennedy, Reagan) – judged as successful
• Affiliation (Nixon) - scandal
Life Story Approach
• Dan McAdams (in footsteps of Henry Murray)
– developed life story approach to identity
– our life story is our identity
– intimacy motivation – an enduring concern for
warm interpersonal encounters for their own sake
– RESEARCH: college men scoring high on intimacy
 better health and happiness 30 years later
• psychobiography
– applying personality theory to one person’s life
A SHORT Time to Ponder
• If identity is so tied to your memories, what
happens to the identity of someone who
suffers from amnesia?
Evaluating Life Story Approach
• Contributions
– rich record of an individual’s experience
• Criticisms
– difficult and time-consuming
• extensive coding and content analysis
– prone to bias
– not easily generalized
Social Cognitive Perspective
• emphasize conscious awareness, beliefs,
expectations, and goals
– stresses the interaction of thought with social
environment
• incorporates principles from behaviorism when
exploring:
– reasoning – Why do we behave differently in different
situations?
– beliefs
– self reflection
– interpretation of situation
Social Cognitive Perspectives
• Albert Bandura
– reciprocal determinism (Fig. 12.5, p. 400)
• behavior, environment, and cognitive factors interact to create
personality
• Key Processes and Variables
– observational learning - key aspect of how we learn
– personal control
• important for performance, well-being, and physical health
• internal locus of control
• external locus of control
– self-efficacy - the belief that one can master a situation and
produce positive change
• solving problems, being sociable, job interviewing, job performance
Reciprocal
Determinism
Self-Efficacy: Make a Life Change
Activity Handout 12.3
• Steps for Self-Efficacy Success:
– Select something you can reasonably expect to be
able to do
– Don’t be discouraged by past failure
– Pay attention to successes
– Keep written records of performance
– Make a list of situations that are both difficult and
not difficult. Begin by tackling the less difficult.
Social Cognitive Perspectives
• Walter Mischel
– criticism of Gordon Allport/trait perspective
– Personality and Assessment (1968)
• should be cross-situational consistency
– situationalism
• behavior and personality vary considerably across context
• not whether but when personality shapes behavior
– CAPS Model of Personality
• cognitive affective processing systems (CAPS) – Mischel’s
theoretical model for describing that our thoughts and
emotions about ourselves and the world affect our behavior
and become linked in ways that matter to behavior
• stability over time rather than across situations
• interconnections among cognitions and emotions affect our
behavior
• concerned with how personality works, not what it is
Evaluating the Social Cognitive Theory
• Contributions
– focuses on interactions of individuals with their
environments
– suggests people can control their environment
• Criticisms
– too concerned with change and the situation
– ignores the role of biology
– very specific predictions hinder generalization
Biological Perspectives
• Personality and the Brain
– brain damage alters personality
– brain responses correlate with personality
• Hans Eysenk’s (1967) Reticular Activation System
Theory
– extraverts and introverts have different base-line levels of
arousal – Fig. 12.6, p. 404
– extraverts: wake up under-aroused
– introverts: wake above optimal arousal levels
– ADDITIONAL RESEARCH: not different on baseline arousal,
but introverts may be more sensitive to arousing stimuli
Biological Perspectives
• Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
(Fig. 12.7, p. 405)
– neuropsychology of personality
– affective style: amygdala, prefrontal cortex, anterior
cingulated cortex (esp. BAS/extraversion)
– behavioral activation system (BAS)
• sensitive to environmental reward
• seek
• extraversion
– behavioral inhibition system (BIS)
• sensitive to environmental punishment
• avoid
• neuroticism
Biological Perspectives
• Role of Neurotransmitters
– growth of dopamine receptors stimulated by
warm care-givers
• disposes person to reward-sensitivity (extraversion)
– less serotonin in circulation leads to negative
mood (neuroticism)
• serotonin: aggressive behavior; depression
– interaction b/w behavior and brain activity
Biological Perspectives
• Behavioral Genetics – the study of the
inherited underpinnings of behavioral
characteristics
– twin studies reveal substantial genetic influence on
Big Five traits (50%)
– most traits influenced by multiple genes
• Evaluating the Biological Perspective
– ties personality to animal learning, brain imaging,
and evolutionary theory
– criticisms (e.g., biology may be the affect, not the
cause, of personality)
Critical Controversy:
Personality: Stability vs. Change
p. 407
• Traits are stable by definition yet positive traits
increase across adulthood (social maturity).
• In your opinion, can personality change
throughout a person’s life? Explain.
• Reflect on what you were like five years ago.
Which aspects of your personality have changed?
Which have stayed the same?
• If you have a friend who wants to be more
outgoing, what would your advice be?
Personality Assessment
• Self-Report Tests (objective test, inventory) – a
method of measuring personality characteristics
that directly asks people whether specific items
describe their personality traits
– beware social desirability
• questions to catch social desirability answers
• “I am lazy at times.”
– empirically-keyed tests used to get around social
desirability problem
• a type of self-report test the presents my questionnaire items to
two groups that are known to be different in some central way
• test takers do not know what is being measured
• test items not related to purpose of test
• MMPI is an example
Personality Assessment
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
–
–
–
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most widely used and researched empirically keyed test
567 items
controls for social desirability
assesses mental health and used to make hiring decisions
and to determine criminal risk
– tool in hiring decisions; forensic settings  assessing
criminal risk
• Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality
Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R)
– assesses the big five factors and 6 subdimensions
– face validity – the extent to which a test item appears to
be a good fit to the characteristic it measures
INTERSECTION
What’s Your Type?
p. 410
• Myers Briggs Type Indicator
– four dimensions used to make personnel
decisions:
•
•
•
•
extraversion-introversion
sensing-intuiting
thinking-feeling
judgment-perception
– not empirically supported
– Barnum effect – the tendency to see ourselves in
vague descriptions
Personality Assessment
• Projective Tests
– psychodynamic approach
– project own meaning on ambiguous stimuli
– provides an assessment that goes deeper than the
surface of personality
– Rorschach inkblot test
• personality score based on description of inkblots
• questionable reliability and validity
– Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
•
•
•
•
developed by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan (1930s)
series of ambiguous pictures viewed one at a time
elicited stories reveal an individual’s personality
research on people’s needs (achievement, affiliation, power,
intimacy, etc.)
• higher reliability and validity
Rorschach
Inkblot Test
• used in TV
and movies a
lot
Thematic
Apperception
Test
• What do you
think is happening
here?
Other Assessment Methods
• direct behavioral observation
• cognitive assessment of attention and
memory
• peer ratings
• psychophysiological measures (e.g.,
polygraph)
• brain imaging
Personality and Health and Wellness
• Personality traits correlated with health
– conscientiousness
• most important to longevity and health
• getting regular exercise, avoiding drinking and smoking, wearing
seatbelts, checking smoke detectors
– personal control
•
•
•
•
lowers stress, coping with stress
development of better problem-solving behaviors
lower risk for cardiovascular diseases and cancer
healthy behavior changes
– self efficacy
•
•
•
•
positive life changes (quitting smoking, losing weight, etc.)
self-efficacy condition – being told you will increase success
treatment alone condition
non-treatment control condition
– optimism
• optimistic: external, unstable, specific
• pessimistic: internal, stable, global
Personality and Health and Wellness
• Personality traits correlated with health
– type A/type B behavior pattern
• Type A behavior pattern – a cluster of characteristics—
such as being excessively competitive, hard-driven,
impatient, and hostile—related to the incidence of
heart disease
• Type B behavior pattern – a cluster of characteristics—
such as being relaxed and easygoing—related to good
health
Personality and Health and Wellness
• Subjective Well-Being
– …person’s assessment of own positive affect
relative to negative affect, and evaluation of own
life in general
– David Watson – negative emotion is the core trait
of neuroticism
– RESEARCH: extrovert and happier than introverts,
even when they are alone
– knowing personality can allow you to have more
positive outcomes (objective assessment and
reevaluation)
Chapter Summary
• Define personality.
• Discuss the following perspectives on personality
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psychodynamic
humanistic
trait
personological and life story
social cognitive
biological
• Characterize the main methods of personality assessment.
• Summarize how personality relates to health and wellness.
Chapter Summary
• Psychodynamic Perspectives
– focus on unconscious determinants
– personality structure and defense mechanisms
– psychosexual stages of development
• Humanistic Perspectives
– Maslow and self-actualization
– Rogers and unconditional positive regard
Chapter Summary
• Trait Perspectives
– traits are stable over time and situations
• Personological and Life Story Perspectives
– personology - study the whole person
– identity can be understood through life stories
• Social Cognitive Perspectives
– behavior, environment, and cognitive factors
– self-efficacy and personal control
Chapter Summary
• Biological Perspectives
• Personality Assessment
– self-reports tests
– projective tests
– other assessment techniques
• Personality and Health and Wellness
– healthful personality traits