Citizens, Society, & the State
(Cleavages, Civil Society, Media Roles,
Political Participation)
Social Cleavages
• Political cleavages are those national, ethnic,
linguistic, and religious divisions that exist in a
society. These differences often have profound
impacts on politics.
• Cross-Cutting
– Occurs when people are torn between different
identities
– Tends to result in more moderate conflict
• Complementary (Coinciding)
– Factors tend to pull people in one direction
– Tends to lead to more conflict and violence
Coinciding vs Cross-Cutting
Cleavages
• Coinciding (Reinforcing) Cleavages
– Identity divisions that coincide with one another for
large numbers of individuals
– More likely to be explosive
• Cross-Cutting Cleavages
– Divide society into many potential groups that may
conflict on one issue, but cooperate on another
– Tend to keep conflict to more moderate levels
Belgium
North
South
Flemish-speaking
Flanders
French-speaking
Walonia
Wealthier
Highly
Fragmented
Parties
Poorer
Coinciding
Cleavages
Switzerland
German
French
Italian
Economic
interests in
tourism or
banking
Different
Dialects
Mixed
Religions
Stable
Society
Cross-Cutting
Cleavages
Cleavages and Political Institutions
• How are cleavages
expressed in the
political system?
– Is political party
membership based on
cleavages?
– Do political elites
usually come from
one group or
another?
– Do these cleavages
block some groups
from fully
participating in
government?
BASES OF SOCIAL CLEAVAGES
1. Social Class (Great Britain, less developed countries,
India)
2. Ethnic Cleavages- could be religious or language.
*Most divisive and explosive.* (Yugoslavia, Liberia,
Rwanda, and Angola)
3. Religious Cleavages (Northern Ireland)
4. Regional Cleavages- involves competition for jobs,
money, and development projects. (Nigeria)
5. Race
6. Gender
Multiple Choice
• If people who live in one region of a country and
share a common ethnicity and religion often have
conflict with people in another region who share a
different ethnicity and religion, the country is
characterized by
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Cross-cutting cleavages
A consensual political culture
Coinciding cleavages
Low levels of political legitimacy
An active civil society
Social Movements
• Examples include US Civil Rights Movement
• Social Participants from most to least active:
– Zealots
– Run-of-the-mill participants
– Misers
– Opportunists
Comparing Citizen/State Relationships
Attitudes and Beliefs of Citizens
• Do citizens trust their government?
• Do they believe that the government cares
about what they think?
• Do citizens feel that government affects their
lives in significant ways?
• What is political efficacy?
– A citizen’s capacity to understand and influence
political events
Citizenship
• Designation as official member of the society
the state confers often on its permanent
population
– Birth right?
– Dual Citizenship
– Naturalization
• Process by which a noncitizen becomes a citizen
Political Socialization
• How do citizens learn about politics in their
country?
• Do electronic and print media shape their
learning?
• Does the government put forth effort to
politically educate their citizens?
• If so, how much of their effort might you call
“propaganda”?
• How do children learn about politics?
There are three different patterns that
describe the citizens’ role in the
political process:
• Participants
– Involved as actual or potential participants
– They are informed and make policy demands
• Subjects
– Passively obey the government and rarely vote
• Parochials
– Hardly aware of government
Types of Participation
• Conventional Participation
– Voting, contacting the government, being a member of a
political party or interest group
– Activities the political elite approve of
– In a non-democratic state, many of these activities might
be repressed
• Unconventional Participation
– Activities the political elite do not approve of
– Might be violent or disturb the status quo
– Strikes, boycotts, marches, protests, violence, and
terrorism
• Nonparticipation
Voting Behavior
• Do citizens in the country participate in
regular elections?
• If so, are the elections truly competitive?
• If not, what is the purpose of the elections?
• What citizens are eligible to vote, and how
many actually vote?
• Do politicians pay attention to elections, and
do elections affect policymaking?
Level of Transparency
• A transparent government is one that operates
openly by keeping citizens informed about
government operations and political issues and
by responding to citizens’ questions and advice.
• This does not have to be limited to democracies,
but low levels of transparency are often found in
authoritarian governments, and corruption also
tends to be lower in countries where government
activities are relatively transparent.
Factors that influence political
beliefs and behaviors
• Consider the important cleavages in the country:
• Do they make a difference in citizens’ political
beliefs and behaviors?
– Examples:
– Does the lower class vote for one political party or
another?
– Are women’s beliefs and behaviors different from
those of men?
– Are younger people as likely to vote as older people
are?
– Do people in rural areas participate in government?
Civil Society and Democratic Society
• Civil society is defined as organized life outside
the state. They are not, necessarily political
organizations but, rather, a “diverse fabric of
organizations” created by people of similar
interests.
• Although groups in civil society are not political,
they are an essential part of free societies
because people can promote, defend, and
articulate what is important to them.
•
“I was in civil society long before I was ever in politics or my husband
was ever even elected president.” – Hillary Clinton
• Civil society gives substance to politics and checks the
power of the state.
• Some see civil society as a precursor to democracy.
• Many argue that civil life is diminishing because people are
becoming more anonymous and detached in society.
• A global civil society is emerging where citizens have similar
concerns as those of other nations and can join together to
reinforce individual efforts.
• DISCUSSION: What is meant by the statement, “people are
becoming more anonymous and detached in US society?”
1. Do you agree with the above statement?
2. What are some of the factors that cause society to become
more anonymous and detached?
What are some examples
of civil society?
Civil Society:
arena outside of
the state and
family (i.e.,
mainly voluntary
organizations
and civic
associations)
that permits
individuals to
associate freely
and
independently
of state
regulation
Arts,
Science,
Leisure,
Sports
Clubs
Professional
and Business
Organizations
Trade
Unions
Charities
Consumer
Groups
Youth Clubs
Voluntary
Associations
and
Organizations
Social Clubs
Environmental
Groups
Community
Associations
Women’s
Groups
Churches
Linkage Institutions
•
•
•
•
Media
Political Parties
Elections
Interest Groups
– Advocacy groups or economic groups
PLURALIST INTEREST GROUPS
• Multiple groups may represent a single
societal interest.
• Group membership is voluntary and limited.
• Groups often have a loose or decentralized
organizational structure.
• There is clear separation between interest
groups and the government.
• Groups are not formally linked to the political
process
• US Model
Advantages
• Competition between
groups force them to come
up with strong policy ideas
Disadvantages
• Inefficiency can result from
competition, hyperpluralism
• Money’s influence
DEMOCRATIC CORPORATIST INTEREST
GROUP SYSTEMS
• More organized in their representation of interests.
They often, regularly work with the government
and are stronger than pluralist interest groups.
– Membership in the peak association is often
compulsory and nearly universal.
– Peak associations are centrally organized and
direct the actions of their members.
– Groups are often systematically involved in
making and implementing public policy.
– UK model to a degree, although lessening
State Corporatism
• State brings and even creates interest groups
• When business, labor, and the government
work closely in policymaking
• This limits the influence of smaller groups
• Groups have little autonomy
• Secondary to the state in policy making
• Mexico under PRI rule
State-Controlled System
Transmission Belt
•
•
•
•
•
State creates and controls group
No autonomy
Common in authoritarian regimes
Arm of the state
Groups exist to facilitate government control
of society
• Can still be a linkage institution for its agents
create support for government policy, AKA
Transmission Belt
PART FOUR:
CITIZENS, SOCIETY & THE STATE
Social Cleavages
• Definition
– Categories of identity that create divisions between
groups in a society
• Two Considerations:
– What are the bases of social cleavages?
– How are cleavages expressed in the political system?
• Coinciding vs Cross-Cutting Cleavages
– Do multiple cleavages lead to more or less division?
Bases of Social Cleavages
• Social Class
– Examples?
• Ethnic Cleavages
– Based on different cultural identities, including
religion/language
– Most divisive and explosive
– Examples?
• Religious Cleavages
– Closely intertwined with ethnicity
– Examples?
• Regional Cleavages
– Involves competition for jobs, money and development
projects
– Examples?
Comparing
Citizen/State
Relationships
Types of Participation
•
•
•
•
Interest Groups
Political Parties
Voting
Social movements
– Organized collective activities
that aim to bring about/resist
change in an existing
group/society
Civil Society
• Civil Society
– Organized life outside the state
– Voluntary groups
– Help people define and advance their own
interest
– Usually strong in liberal democracies
– Help prevent “tyranny of the majority”
• Global Civil Society: Nongovernmental
organizations (NGO’s)
– Doctors Without Borders for
example, Amnesty International, Red Cross