NORMAL STAGES OF SECOND
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT:
BILINGUALISM AND HOW IT
INFLUENCES LANGUAGE, LITERACY,
AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Alejandro E. Brice, Ph.D., CCC-SLP
ASHA Demographic Profile, 2012
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Approx. 150,241 certified ASHA members.
Estimated that only 5 % of the ASHA
membership indicated that they met the criteria
for bilingual service provider.
Therefore, it is essential that monolingual SLPs
know about dual language learners (DLL) in
order to assess and treat bilingual students.
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Bilingual acquisition differs from monolingual
development (Brice & Brice, 2009).
More layers affecting ultimate acquisition
include:
• Second language acquisition factors
• Environmental factors
• Individual factors
• Disability factors
Second Language Acquisition
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Second language acquisition is not a
straightforward process.
The two languages interact with each other even
when one language is used primarily.
Young children as young as 18 months can code
switch when spoken to in L1 or L2 (Döpke, 1992;
Pearson, Fernandez, Lewedeg, & Oller, 1997).
Language transference- concepts, rules transfer
from one language to the other, e.g., /p, b, t, d, k,
g/ sounds from Spanish to English.
Second Language Acquisition continued
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Interference- when concepts, rules do not transfer,
typically because it may not exist in the native
language, e.g., /ɵ,ð/(voiceless and voiced “th”)
does not exist in Spanish, therefore, SpanishEnglish speakers will most likely substitute the
closest Spanish approximation, an interdental /d/.
Other examples of interference include English
speakers substituting /d/ for the Spanish tap/flap
sound /r/ (as seen in “tener”, deber”).
Transference and interference are two way
streets, L1->L2, L2->L1.
Language Dominance and Proficiency
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Language dominance and language proficiency are
concepts that imply that languages should be
considered individually.
Proficiency should be investigated in terms of
communicative competence (Canale & Swain, 1980;
Cazden, John, & Hymes, 1972).
Proficiency should be measured utilizing a combined
language approach, i.e., both languages must be
considered concurrently. It is the sum of all correct
responses combined across languages (i.e., correct
responses are counted only once regardless of which
language) (Castilleja, 2012).
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Bullock, Toribido, González, and Dalola (2006)state
that, “Such research contends that bilinguals’
language use is malleable in that they may behave
differently according to which language they are
producing or perceiving at a given time” (p. 9).
Language dominance is not an overall ability
assigned to L1, or L2 but one that varies according
to language, language domain (e.g., semantics),
and task (e.g., reading).
Language Maintenance
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Should the parents/caregivers speak the
native language or English in the home?
Kohnert (2008) stated that in bilingual homes
there exists"... the availability of rich language
in the environment and diverse opportunities to
develop and use a particular language for
meaningful communicative interactions" (p. 10).
Language Maintenance cont.
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Speaking the native language allows for
parents to maintain communication; speaking
only English will not accelerate English
learning. Children need a strong L1 to transfer
those skills to English. It may take longer to
acquire English if the native language is not
maintained (Thomas & Collier, 1997).
Speaking only English at home may provide a
less than optimal English model.
Language Deceleration
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Bilingual children experience extra cognitive
and linguistic demands when learning two or
more languages (Genesee, 1987).
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This lag is usually temporary with children
acquiring native or native-like abilities in oral
language skills.
Academic language lags have been noted to
last after 5-6 years of schooling (Jean &
Geva, 2009).
Code Switching and Code Mixing
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I’m going to read the directions. Prestes
atención? (pay attention).
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“Open your books to pagina diez (page ten).
These are examples of code switching
(CS)(changing languages) and code mixing
(CM) (combining languages).
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Both are natural behaviors for bilinguals.
Both are rule governed.
Conclusions from Brice (2000)
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CS and CM occurs with high frequency even in
environments where English is preferred.
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Thus, CS and CM appear to be normal and
expected behaviors as seen in ESL/ESOL
classrooms.
CS is more evident than CM.
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Most likely due to the fact that switching
languages is linguistically simpler than embedding
aspects of two languages.
Conclusions from Brice (2000) cont.
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CM to English is most likely to occur as the students
are native language proficient.
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Embedding English word elements into their native
language is one stage in English acquisition.
Code switching and code mixing are normal
occurrences as exhibited by the teacher, teacher
paraprofessional and students.
Code Switching and Code Mixing cont.
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Indicators of possible deficiencies in codeswitching (Brice, 2000):
1. Long pauses indicating word searching and
retrieval difficulties, false starts.
2. Inability to switch and mix between the two
languages with ease.
3. An over preponderance to use one language,
difficulty switching between the two languages.
4. Conscious awareness of which language is being
spoken.
Ultimate Attainment
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Ultimate attainment abilities depend on robust
first language skills (Bialystok, Luk, Peets, &
Yang, 2010).
Lugo-Neris, Wood-Jackson, and Goldstein
(2010) found that children with greater
language proficiency in one of their two
languages made the most gains from
vocabulary intervention.
Ultimate Attainment cont.
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Pham and Kohnert (2013) discovered that
English vocabulary skills overtook Vietnamese
expressive vocabulary skills at 9 and receptive
vocabulary skills at 7 ½ years of age.
Ultimate attainment in English can be
achieved; however, may come at a risk of
losing the native language.
Language Loss or Attrition
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Under ideal conditions, balanced bilingualism
(i.e., high abilities in both languages) can be
achieved.
Language loss occurs under less than ideal
conditions (Anderson, 1999; Seliger & Vago,
1991).
If the home language becomes a minority
language (i.e., English becomes the favored
and most used language), then serious
consequences may occur. (See next page).
Language Loss or attrition cont.
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When English becomes the favored language, then:
1. The child's language development may stall
and resembles a language learning
disability.
2. Communication with both parents may
weaken.
3. It takes a significantly longer time to fully
develop English academic language skills
(Thomas & Collier, 1997).
4. Positive transference of language skills from
L1 to L2 may be lessened (Cummins, 1984,
1998).
Language Fossilization
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No, not a archaeological dig; but when growth in
English languishes and stops (Selinker, 1972).
Acquiring English and maintaining the native
language are not guaranteed.
Several causal factors may influence this outcome:
1. lack of instruction
2. lack of input
3. and/or satisfactory communicative skills (Han,
2004).
Environmental Factors
According to Wong-Fillmore (1992),
bilingualism only occurs when the following
conditions are met:
1. Need to communicate
2. Access to speakers of English
3. Interaction, support, feedback from
English
speakers
4. Adequate time to learn the second
language
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Individual and Developmental Factors
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Cognitive aptitude, stages in second language
learning, and physical development all play a
role.
Kohnert (2013) states that bilingual students
must have the means, opportunities, and
motivation to acquire their languages.
Disability Factors
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The most perplexing question for bilingual children
with disabilities is: Are they able to acquire both
languages to the best of their abilities?
Several studies have a similar pattern of
development (Brice & Brice, 2009; Kohnert, Lobitz,
& Pham, 2010):
1. Typically developing monolinguals perform
better in English.
2. Typically developing bilingual students
perform second best.
Disability Factors cont.
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3. English speaking children with disabilities
perform poorer.
4. Bilingual children with disabilities perform the
worst.
In conclusion, it appears that the extent of their
disability has a more profound effect than their two
languages.
Strategies for Promoting Bilingualism
(Hakuta & Bialystok, 1994)
1. Make learning English a positive
experience.
2. Bilingualism should be promoted in the
home and school.
3. Children should have well developed native
language skills before learning English.
4. Opportunities for reading and writing in
the native language should be encouraged.
5. Opportunities to use the native language
should be encouraged.
Strategies for Promoting Bilingualism
cont.
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6. Children should receive appropriate
instruction in English.
7. Children should be allowed to make
errors.
In sum, working with second language learners
with and without disabilities will be a
challenge.
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It is our responsibility to rise up to this challenge.
Contact the Author
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Alejandro Brice, Ph.D., CCC-SLP
Professor, University of South Florida St.
Petersburg
aebrice@usfsp.edu