Chapter 7- Memory
Three Kinds of Memory
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Process by which we collect prior experiences and skills learned in the past
1.) Episodic (autobiographical)- memory of a specific event that took place in a person’s experience
or presence
- Dinner last night, quiz
flashbulb memory- events that are “photographed” in every detail like when a
flashbulb goes off
-distinctness of memory; first love, first kiss
2.) Semantic- general knowledge that people remember
- George Washington as first president, but we don’t remember where or when we
learned it
-explicit memory- memory of specific information
3.) Implicit- memories that consist of the skills or procedures you have learned; throwing a
ball, riding a bike
Chapter 7 Section 2:
Three Processes of Memory- TNESSFFTTO
1.) Encoding- Translation of information into a form in which it can be stored
 Visual Codes- see codes as pictures
 Acoustic Codes- records sequence of sounds; speak out loud
 Semantic Codes- represent info, in terms of its meaning
2.) Storage- 2nd process of memory; maintenance of encoded information over period of time
 maintenance rehearsal- repeating info over and over to keep from forgetting
-the more time spent on this the longer it will be kept
 elaborative rehearsal- make information meaningful by relating to already known
information
-Vocabulary sentences
 Organizational Systems- “filing” new info in relation to other info
 Filing Errors- Occur when info has been organized improperly
3.) Retrieval- consist of locating info and bringing it to consciousness
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Context- Dependent Memory
o Going to a certain place
o Remembering things
o Study in place where test
State- Dependent Memory- Memories that are retrieved when in same emotional state as
coded
State of consciousness as well
On the tip of the Tongue- Phenomenon where we know info but can’t seem to verbalize it
P. 157 Demonstration
Chapter 7 Section 3:
Three Stages of Memory
1.) Sensory Memory- consists of the immediate, initial recording of information that enters
through out senses; to remember info something must be done quickly
iconic memory- memory like a snapshot; accurate photographic memories that are
extremely brief- fraction of a second
eidetic imagery- the ability to remember visual stimuli over long periods of time
(Photographic memory)
echoic memory- mental traces of sound that lasts several seconds
2.) Short-Term Memory a.k.a. working memory
-consists of information from iconic and echoic memories that you paid attention to
-use this memory most of the time; repeating phone #
Primacy and Recency Effects
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primacy effect-the tendency to recall the initial items in a series
recency effect- the tendency to recall the last items in a series
chunking- the organization of times into familiar of manageable units
-George Miller found the average person can hold a list of seven items in short-term
memory.
*Domino activity with memories for the day*
Interference
-Occurs when new information appears in short-term memory and takes the place of what
is already there
-ZBT experiment with college students forget when counting
3.) Long-Term Memory- Final stage of memory where steps must be taken to remember
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Capacity of Memory
- limited to the amount of attention we give it for long-term memory but unlimited quantity
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Memory as Reconstructive
- memories reconstructed from bits and pieces and reconstructed in accordance with our beliefs
and needs at the time
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schemas- mental representations that we form of the world by organizing bits of information into
knowledge
o Car crash: “hit” 34 mph, “smashed” 41 mph
Chapter 7 Section 4:
Forgetting and Memory Improvement
Basic Memory Tasks
 Herman Ebbinghaus is credited for the first scientific study of forgetting. He used nonsense syllabus to measure the difference between remembered and forgotten information.
1.) Recognition- identifying objects or events that have been encountered before
Ex: multiple choice test
-Harry Bahrick examined recognition of classmates’ faces
*class discussion on p. 168 using Bahrick’s method
2.) Recall- to bring it back to mind; reconstruct it
-Use nonsense syllables with time measurement
-Use paired associations- have to recall one pair from one given
3.) Relearning
-We can relearn something faster than when we originally learned the information
Different Kinds of Forgetting
interference
decay- the fading away of memory
Repression
-Freud believed we forget things on purpose; memories that may be painful and
unpleasant
-push these memories from our consciousness
Amnesia
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Severe memory loss caused by brain injury, shock, fatigue, illness, or repression
-Dissociative amnesia is thought to be caused by psychological trauma.
Infantile Amnesia- the forgetting of early childhood events
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Freud- sexual feelings toward parents and aggression- repressed
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Biological and Cognitive factors- brain not mature enough
Anterograde Amnesia
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Memory loss from trauma that prevents a person from forming new memories
-Ex: Fifty First Dates
Retrograde Amnesia
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People forget the period leading up to a traumatic event.
-Ex: Football head injury
Improving Memory
Drill and Practice- repeating over and over until remembered. Ex: flash cards
 Douglas Hermann- remember names by repeating them right away;
“Nice to meet you, Heather.”
Relate to Things You Already Know
-Requires you to think more deeply about the new information so you may remember it
better
Form Unusual Associations
-Remembering grocery lists by assigning body parts items from the list
Construct Links
-Peso “People pay with money.”
Use Mnemonic Devices
-Systems for remembering information
Ex. Roy G Biv
HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior