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Reading pages 2-8
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Anatomy is –
◦ the study of the structure of body parts and their
relationships to each other.
◦ Means “to cut apart”
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Physiology is –
◦ the study of the function of the body’s structure.
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4 branches of anatomy –
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◦
◦
◦
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Gross anatomy
Microscopic
Developmental
Specialized branches
Gross anatomy ◦ Macroscopic
◦ Study of structures large enough to be seen with
the naked eye
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3 categories of gross anatomy –
◦ Regional –
 study of all body structures in a body region
◦ Systemic –
 study of all structures in a body system
 body is studied system by system
◦ Surface –
 study of internal body structures as they relate to the
skin
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Microscopic –
◦ Study of structures that are too small to see with
the naked eye
◦ 2 categories of microscopic anatomy –
 Cytology –
 Study of cells
 Histology –
 Study of tissues
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Developmental –
◦ Study of the change in body structures over the
course of a lifetime
◦ Embryology –
 Developmental changes that occur before and
after birth
 Helps to explain birth defects
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Specialized branches of anatomy –
◦ Pathology –
 Study of structural changes associated with disease
◦ Radiology –
 Study of internal structures using specialized visual
techniques
◦ Molecular –
 Study of biological molecules
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Essential tools for studying anatomy
◦ Mastery of anatomical terminology
◦ Observation
◦ Manipulation
◦ Palpation (feeling organs with your hands)
◦ Auscultation (listening to organ sounds with a
stethoscope)
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Physiology –
◦ Studies the function or operation of organ systems
◦ Focuses/depends on
 Cellular or molecular level
 Principles of physics
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Complementarity of structure and function ◦ States that function is dependent on structure
◦ The form of a structure relates to its function
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Chemical –
◦ Simplest level of organization
◦ Atoms –
 Tiny building blocks of matter
 Combine to form molecules
 MEET THE ELEMENTS
◦ Molecules –
 Combine specifically to form organelles
 Organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, etc.) are the basic unit of living cells
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The cell is the smallest unit of life (cellular level),
and varies widely in size and shape according to
the cells function.
The tissue level is groups of cells having a common
function.
◦ Epithelium, muscle, connective, and nervous
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Organ level –
◦ Specific structure composed of two groups of tissues that
work together to perform a specific function
 Lungs – epithelial tissue and connective tissue
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Organ systems –
◦
◦
Groups of organs that work closely together to
accomplish a specific purpose
Cardiovascular system

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Heart, lungs, blood vessels, and blood all work
together to keep the body oxygenated
The organismal level is the total number of
all structures working together to promote
life.
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Maintaining boundaries –
◦ Allows the body to maintain separate internal and external
environments
◦ Allows the body also maintain separate internal chemical
environments
◦ Cells are chemically separate from the body by the plasma
membrane
◦ Internal environment kept separate by integumentary system
(skin)
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Movement –
◦ Allows transport of molecules within the body –
 Blood
 Food
 Urine
◦ Muscles = movement
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Responsiveness –
◦ Irritability
◦ Body’s ability to detect changes in the internal or external
environment and be able respond to the stimuli
◦ Reflex
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Digestion –
◦ Process of breaking down food into molecules that the
body can use
◦ Food is broken down into tiny molecules that can be
absorbed into the blood and used by cells
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Metabolism –
◦ All chemical reactions that occur in the body
◦ Breaking down substances (catabolism)
◦ Synthesizing more complex substances from simple
substances (anabolism)
◦ ATP production
◦ Regulated by hormones, digestion, and oxygen availability
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Excretion –
◦
◦
◦
◦
Process of removing waste (non-useful substances)
Digestive system
Urinary system
Respiratory system
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Reproduction –
◦ Process by producing more cells or organisms
◦ Meiosis and mitosis – one cell divides to produce
identical daughter cells
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Growth –
◦ The increase in size of body parts or the whole organism
◦ Usually accomplished by increasing the number of cells
◦ Individual cells can increase in size when not dividing
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Organ systems work cooperatively to
promote the well-being of the entire body
Check out pages 6 and 7
Get into a group of 3 and complete a foldable
of the 12 organ systems. Must include:
◦ Name of system
◦ Organs involved
◦ Brief description of what the system does (do your
best to put the book description into your own
words)
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Survival needs =
◦ Factors that are required to maintain life
◦ Include –
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


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Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
Body temperature
Atmospheric pressure
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Nutrients –
◦ Chemical substances used for energy and the rebuilding of
cells
◦ Plant-derived food =
 Carbohydrates – bodies energy source
 Minerals & vitamins – required for chemical reactions & oxygen
transport
◦ Animal foods =
 Proteins – fuel for the body but less energy than carbs & help
for cell structure rebuilding
 Fats – cushion organs, energy reserve, and form insulating
layers
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Oxygen –
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Water –
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Human cells need oxygen to perform reactions
Cells reactions are oxidative – requiring oxygen
Transported by red blood cells
Air = 20% oxygen – transported to cells through the
respiratory system & by blood cells
Most abundant chemical substance in the body
60-80% of body is water
Chemical reactions need watery environment to perform
Provides base for body secretions and excretions
Acquired from food and liquids
Lost from evaporation through the lungs, skin & excretions
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Normal body temperature –
◦ Must be maintained for chemical reactions to take
place
◦ Body temp must stay above 98ºF for chemical
reactions to occur at a normal rate
◦ Body temp that gets too high can cause chemical
reactions to occur at such a rapid rate that the body
can’t continue to function
◦ Most body heat is generated from the muscular
system
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Atmospheric pressure –
◦ Force the air exerts on the surface of the body
◦ Breathing and gas exchange
◦ High altitudes = lower atmospheric pressure =
lower cellular functions
◦ Must be present in appropriate amounts or cellular
functions can be slow or excessive pressure can
cause cellular damage
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Reading pages 8-12
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Homeostasis is the ability of the body to
maintain a relatively constant internal
environment, regardless of environmental
changes.
◦ A dynamic state of equilibrium or balance
◦ Internal conditions vary but always remain within
normal limits
◦ Communication throughout the body is essential
 Accomplished by the nervous and endocrine systems
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Homeostatic control mechanisms –
◦ Components –
 Variables –
 the regulated factor or event
 Receptor –
 structure that monitors changes in the environment
 sensor that responds to changes or stimuli
 sends info to the control center
 Control center –
 Structure that determines the set point (level or range) for a variable
 Analyzes input
 Coordinates an appropriate response to the stimuli
 Effector –
 Structure that carries out the response directed by the control center
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Most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative
feedback mechanisms.
A negative feedback mechanism causes the
variable to change in a way that opposes the initial
change.
◦ Cause the variable to change in the direction opposite to
that of the initial change – returns it to its “ideal” value
◦ Ex. Thermostat = sets temp & houses both the receptor &
control center – temp is set and when the temp drops the
heating system turns on (effector) – when the temp is
reached the thermostat is triggered off
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Both the nervous system and the endocrine
system are important to the maintenance of
homeostasis.
The goal of negative feedback mechanisms is
to prevent sudden, sever changes in the
body.
◦ Examples:
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Body temperature, withdrawal reflex,
control of blood volume by ADH, heart rate,
blood pressure, rate and depth of breathing, and
blood levels of O2, CO2, and minerals
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A positive feedback mechanism causes the
variable to change in the same direction as
the original change, resulting in a greater
deviation from the set point
◦ Response enhances or exaggerates the original
stimulus so the activity (output) is accelerated
◦ Said to be positive because the changes occur in
the same direction as the initial disturbance
◦ Control infrequent events that don’t require
continuous adjustments
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Positive feedback mechanisms typically
activate events that are self-perpetuating
◦ Once initiated have a amplifying effect
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Most positive feedback mechanisms are not
related to the maintenance of homeostasis
◦ They can race out of control – so they are rarely
used to promote day to day life
◦ Examples:
 Blood clotting
 Enhancement of labor contractions – oxytocin –
intensifies labor contractions
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Homeostatic imbalances often results in
disease
As we age our control systems become less
efficient & stable
Positive feedback mechanisms can become
out of control causing illness and diseases
(some aspects of heart failure are due to out
of control positive feedback mechanisms)
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Reading pages 12-19
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Anatomical position –
◦ A position in which the body is erect
(standing), feet are slightly apart, palms face
forward, and the thumbs point away from the
body.
◦ In anatomical position, right and left refer to
the right and left sides of the person being
viewed.
◦ Anatomical position is always assumed
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Directional terms –
◦ Used to explain exactly where one body part
is in relation to another
◦ Very specific terminology
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2 divisions of regional anatomy –
◦ Axial –
 Makes up the axis of the body
 Includes head, neck, and trunk
◦ Appendicular –
 The appendages of the body that attach to the axis of
the body
 Includes upper and lower limbs
◦ Regional terms designate specific areas within the
axial and appendicular divisions.
 Designates specific areas within the body divisions
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Body planes are flat surfaces that lie at right angles
to each other
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A section is named for the plane along which it is
cut
◦ Sagittal plane = sagittal section
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Body planes =
◦ Sagittal
◦ Frontal
◦ Transverse
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Sagittal –
◦ A vertical plane that separates the body into right and
left halves
 Median or midsagittal plane – Sagittal plane that lies
exactly along the body’s midline
 Parasagital –Sagittal plane that lies offset of the midline
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Frontal –
◦ A vertical plane that separates the body into anterior
and posterior parts
◦ Also called a coronal plane –
 Divides the body across the crown of the head
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Transverse –
◦ A horizontal plane that runs from right to left
◦ Divides the body into superior and inferior parts
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Sections –
◦ Cuts made along specific planes
◦ Transverse –
 Cross section
 Made along a transverse plane
◦ Oblique –
 Cuts made at angles between the horizontal and
vertical planes
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Body cavities –
◦ Spaces within the body that are closed to the
outside and contain the internal organs
◦ Dorsal body cavity –
 Space that houses the central nervous system
 Cranial –
 Is within the skull & houses the brain
 Vertebral –
 Spinal cavity
 Cavity within the vertebral column houses the spinal cord
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Ventral body cavity –
◦ Anterior to & larger than the dorsal body cavity
◦ Thoracic –
 Superior division
 Surrounded by ribs and muscles
 Pleural cavities – Houses lungs
 Mediastinum – Contains the esophagus & trachea
 Pericardial cavity - Encloses the heart
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Ventral body cavities cont. –
◦ Abdominopelvic –
 Inferior division of the ventral body cavity
 Separated from thoracic by the diaphragm
 Abdominal cavity –
 Contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver
 Pelvic cavity –
 Inferior part w/ in the bony pelvis
 Contains the bladder, reproductive organs, & the rectum
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Serous membranes are also called serosae
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Serous membrane contains…
◦ Parietal –
 Lines the cavity walls
 Named for specific cavities in which it is associated
◦ Visceral –
 Covers the outer surface of organs in the cavity
 Named for the specific organ in which it is associated
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Serous membranes secrete & are separated by a
thin layer of lubrication fluid = serous fluid
◦ allows organs to slide without friction along cavity walls
and between each organ
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Helps to divide into
smaller areas for
study
Figure 1.11a
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Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the
digestive organs
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Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose
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Orbital – house the eyes
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Middle ear – contains bones (ossicles) that
transmit sound vibrations
Synovial – joint cavities
Figure 1.13