A2 Historical enquiry:
India and the British
Empire, 1757-1947
British India after the
Mutiny – h/w feedback
• Constitutional change – Crown control replaced BEIC p.14-15
• Government structure p.14-15 and p.21-22
• Policy changes towards religion and participation of Indians in
government (include the ICS and difficulties for Indian
applicants) p.15-17
• Modernisation and exploitation of India’s resources p.17
• British attitudes to India (p.18 the Ilbert Bill and p.20 the
White Man’s Burden)
• The Aligarh movement and the INC (include Indian Council
Act) p.17, p. 19
• Idea of paramountcy p.24
Constitutional change –
Crown control replaced BEIC
• EIC abolished – British took control of former EIC territories
• Mughal Empire bought to an end
• Queen Victoria declared ruler of India – warm relationship. Origins of
mutual admiration lie in the Royal Proclamation of 1858 (suggested
personal respect for Indians and interest in their advancement). Special
relationship developed in 1877 as the Queen became Empress of India
• Proclamation seen by British as policy to cautiously develop Indian
involvement, Indians would come to see it as foundation for self-govt
though importantly not at the time – independence not envisaged and
educated Indians saw British rule as helpful for social and economic
development
• Treaties with Indian princes to bring them under indirect control.
Permitted them to continue to rule – partly reward for loyalty in Mutiny,
partly to save government expense. Twin-track approach – pressured to
recognise benefits of British dominance and not to challenge it, but also
investment in education and training in their states. Elaborate hierarchy
of honours and privileges appealed to the princes
Government
structure
• p.22 for clear diagram of governance structure
• People of Britain and British India were crown subjects – monarch was head of state
in Parliament
• Governor-general takes title of Viceroy – accountable to Parliament. Had
considerable powers of delegated government and absolute power in states of
emergency. Supreme representative of the monarch, appointed by the PM and
accountable to secretary of state (personal and political relationship of these 2 post
holders was important for developments in India)
• Secretary of state for India – responsible for Indian affairs. Accountable to
Parliament and advised by the India Council
• Military commander-in-chief in India – oversaw 3 armies still based on the
presidencies of the EIC. Advised by national Legislative Council (dominated by
British officials)
• Govt recognised need to keep in touch with Indian public opinion – cautious
measures to involve Indians in govt e.g. Indian advisers appointed to Legislative
Council
• 11 British provinces had governors, advised by provincial councils (only certain
matters permitted for discussion and decision)
Policy changes towards religion
and participation of Indians in
government
Religion:
• Recognition that religious insensitivities had partly caused rebellion – Proclamation
set out policy to prevent religious intervention. Has been argued that this lays
foundations separate rights for different religious communities which led to partition
• British intervene less in moral and religious matters – turn instead to social projects
‘trains and drains’
• Growth in secular education and in intellectual and cultural debate – attempts to
modernise religious attitudes among Hindus and Muslims
Participation of Indians in government:
• Growing sense of India as a nation in the making (provides conditions for
nationalism to grow)
• Jobs in ICS opened up to Indians however, entry was by exam – little education in
India itself and examinations held in Britain – prohibitively expensive for many
Indians. Growing resentment results in exam being switched to India in the 1890sbut
by 1913 Indians made up only 5% of the ICS
• In recognition of these barriers, drive to increase education – investment to support
local initiatives. Slow progress but huge expansion in higher educational opportunity.
Growth of education in English language and of professional employment created an
Indian middle class ‘which was to become the fertile soil of the nationalist
movement.’
Modernisation and
exploitation of india’s
resources
• Progress in communications and transport
• Railway network expanded – military and governmental reasons, to
stimulate trade and economy, to prepare for the transport of
foodstuffs in likelihood of famines and dry spells
• Modernisation of Great Trunk Road linking Calcutta with the Punjab
• Growing telegraph network + railways = circulation of Englishlanguage newspapers which were expanding due to technology and
growth of the middle class. This fed a growing national consciousness
that transcended geographical and linguistic divisions
• Growing trade with Britain – export of raw materials (cotton, jute,
rice, tea) and import of manufactured goods (cotton, steel,
engineering) helped create an international outlook and connections
with global (imperialist) economies
British attitudes to
India
The Ilbert Bill
• Even with emergence of an Indian middle class, the British were withdrawing as a social group –
aloof from the new India and shunned contact. Turned themselves into an ‘ultra-caste’ obsessed
with their own affairs. Attitude seen in practice with reaction to the 1883 Ilbert Bill
• Bill was a rational consequence of increasing numbers of Indians entering the legal profession
and judiciary, as qualified and experienced as Britons. It meant that white Britons would be
tried by Indians judges – led to uproar
• Mutiny fear returned – white British women left to mercies of local males, who failed to protect
their women from terrors of sati. ‘White mutiny’ – British made it clear they’d refuse to obey
the bill so it was amended – all-white juries would reach verdict on white defendants
• Two-fold effect on educated Indian opinion – increased pessimism that British would ever truly
respect Indians, let alone give them responsibility and power. Led to more support for
developing nationalist ideas. Second, success of threatened widespread passive resistance to rule
of law was noted for future reference e.g. by Gandhi. Challenged notion of Indian ‘integrity’
White Man’s Burden
• British willingly shouldered this burden – passing on and nurturing European culture and
civilisation. Responsibility was self-defined and self-justifying
• Development of an educated elite by 1900 was becoming a challenge to the British – growth was
outstripping employment opportunities – created discontent but also meant this group had time
on its hands to imagine a different way of governing India. Wrote letters to newspapers to share
ideas and complaints
The Aligarh movement and
the INC
The Aligarh movement
•
Leading Indians took steps to regenerate society through education and modernisation. Aim –
create a Westernised intellectual class, increase Indian self-respect and British confidence by
adoption of cooperative and forward-looking ideas
• Particularly Muslim community who still felt blamed for the Mutiny
• 1875 – foundation of Aligarh College by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, 1913 becomes full university –
Islamic studies, Urdu, Western science, literature and history
• Aligarh movement across India – aim to increase Muslim prominence in social affairs. Khan
supported Hindu/Muslim unity but movement also initiated idea of two self-respecting
communal nations within India
• Rejected involvement in any agitation and members told not to join Congress Party after its
formation – also determined to secure special political representation for Muslims
• Led to formation of political party in 1906 – All-India Muslim League. Muslim League under
Jinnah would eventually be driving force for partition
The INC
• Indian National Congress formed 1885 – some saw it as response to the Ilbert Bill but its
origins date back to imperial durbar of January 1877. Gathering of representatives from all over
India agreed to meet in private to discuss ‘present situation and future prospects.’
• First meetings were educational but Congress quickly became a recognisable political party –
driving force for nationalism and independence over next 50yrs
• Founder was a Scot, AO Hume – early years argued for only slight concessions from the Raj,
which it regarded as a good thing for India – one such concession: 1892 Indian Council Act –
modestly increased number of Indians on local councils
Idea of paramountcy
Paramountcy
• Paramount power – diplomatic term for most powerful force, often an
occupying army
• Princely states forced to acknowledge Britain as the p.p. in India –
sweetened as a treaty guaranteeing British military protection
• British reserved and exercised right to remove a prince working against
British interest or causing trouble with neighbouring princes
• British official placed in each royal court to monitor the princes
• Non intervention over issues of sati, female infanticide and slavery – postrebellion policy. Focused mainly on persuading princes to reduce their
armed forces – sometimes enforced by military intervention
• Rulers encouraged to establish colleges to educate their sons, moulded on
British public schools
• Some acquired taste for European style and used their wealth to live in
Britain – caused some concern about resentment along the population but of
greater concern were rulers who were so progressive they veered towards
nationalist sentiments
The early Indian nationalist
movements
L.O Be able to explain the foundations of the INC and use sources to analyse Indian
and British attitudes
The early nationalist
movements: Key points
Hindus
Muslims
• Indian National Congress 1885
• Idea proposed by AO Hume in
order to reduce impact of
revolutionary ideas
• At first, very loyal and submissive
• By 1905, radical and moderate
wings developed
• Some Indians beginning to resent
British rule, in response to British
contempt for them
• Aligarh movement – religious and
social revival but also:
• Sir Syed Ahmad Khan – conscious
of Muslims’ potential political
disadvantage in a future selfgoverning India
• Very few Muslims in Congress
• Development of Hindu activism
led to foundation of Muslim
League, 1906
Early nationalism –
source work
• Use the documents to answer the questions on your
sheet (note that it is double sided!)
• You have 2 lessons to complete this and feedback
your answers
Early nationalism –
source work
• What are your findings?
• The key point to note is that the early representative
movements are loyal. They start to become radicalised
in reaction to Curzon’s inflammatory policies which
we will look at next lesson