TERMS & THEORIES
Sep 18, 2014
Learning Goals:

I can define key terms and theories of Social
Science.
What is theory?
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A theory is a set of interrelated concepts,
definitions, and propositions that explains or
predicts events or situations by specifying relations
among variables.
Source:http://www.esourceresearch.org/eSourceBook/SocialandBehavioralTheories/3TheoryandWhyItisIm
portant/tabid/727/Default.aspx
Why do we need theories?
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Help us classify things: entities, processes, and
causal relationships
Help us understand how and why already observed
regularities occur
Help us predict as yet unobserved relationships
Guide research in useful directions
Serve as a basis for action. "There is nothing so
practical as a good theory.“
Source: http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~jpiliavi/357/theory.white.pdf
Why?
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Social theories provide “road maps” that help us
understand how society works
despite the large numbers, most people behave in
patterned ways.
Why and how does this happen? Sociology addresses
this question, with an array of theories, which many
sociologists categorize into three general theoretical
perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, and
interactionism. Most sociologists blend these three
perspectives when trying to explain social life.
Sociology studies interactions and conflicts within
groups to determine how society functions.
Sociologists determine whether changes in society are
predictable or unpredictable.
Sociologists examine previous conditions that brought
up change in first place
SOCIOLOGY
Key Theories
Key Social Theories
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Structural Functionalism
Conflict Theory
Symbolic Interactionism
Structural Functionalism

Founded by Emile
Durkheim
 Born
in France,
 1858 - 1917
Structural Functionalism
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Interlocking systems
Attempts to explain relationships within society in
terms of the relationships among: individuals,
groups and institutions and the consequences of
these relationships
The premise of this theory is that all parts of
society work together for the good of the society
as a whole.
Structural-Functionalism

Believe that each society should provide its members
with the fundamental requirements for functioning
fulfilling material needs
 socializing and educating youth
 regulating reproduction (usually marriage)

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Argue that societies remain stable by its members
sharing values and agree on ways that its institutions
operate.
Change is slow, then society is stable. When change
occurs in one part, there is change in another. During
times of rapid change, the danger is that sometimes
institutions fail to fulfill their function.
Conflict Theory/Neo-Marxism


Developed by Karl
Marx, mid 1800s;
German
Basis of the theory
founded in the
political/economic
theory of communism
Conflict Theory/ Neo-Marxism

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Focus on process of economic power
leading to political power as a key to
understanding society
Struggle for economic power means
that society is not static but everchanging
Economic system creates a rich class
of owners and a poor class of
workers - Social ills stem from the
economic inequalities between the
two classes.
Social institutions (churches, schools,
prisons etc.) created to represent the
division between the powerful and
powerless
Conflict Theory

Conflict arises as much over values, status, and a
sense of personal honour as economic status.
“Haves”
CONFLICT
“Have
Nots”
Feminist Theory

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Feminist Theorists focus on sex and gender issues – extension of
Conflict Theory
Believe that women have traditionally been disadvantaged in
society because men have discriminated against them
Since men have traditionally made the decisions in within
society, they tend to favour men
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Liberal feminism emphasizes better-paid and prestigious jobs to
women and the elimination of laws discriminating against social rights
of women
Marxian feminists believe women’s unpaid / undervalued domestic
work has influenced lower wages to male workers
Radical feminists believe child bearing has led to systematic
oppression by men
Socialist feminists try to separate issues of oppression that stem from
male domination through capitalism
Symbolic Interactionism

Developed by Max
Weber
 German
 late
1800s, early 1900s
work
Symbolic Interactionism

Theory which states that humans act toward people
or things based on how we assign meaning to those
people or things
We assign meaning based on social interactions we have
 Ex. labeling people/friends and families and then acting
according to that label

SI study face to face interactions, examining how
people make sense out of life.
Symbolic Interactionism –
George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

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See sociology as the study
of one’s own and others’
beliefs, motives, values
Interactionists study the
meanings people give to
their society

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How do we experience,
interpret reality?
Reality is defined by
context, experience,
through social interactions
and rituals
Symbolic Interactionism
Herbert Blumer (1900-1987)

Importance of language:
the symbols used to
communicate with each
other

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Verbal and non-verbal
cues
Believe society is a
product of face-to-face
interaction between
people using symbols

(meaningful things that
represent something
else– words, gestures
and signs).
Symbolic Interactionism –
Charles Cooley (1864-1929)
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Key idea of the “looking-glass
self” (I am, who I think you
think that I am)
People develop self-image
from the way they think others
see them
“Self-fulfilling prophecy”: seek
experiences that reinforce our
self-image

Study: researcher calls people
for donations; tells one group
they are generous, thanks for
past generosity; gave more
than those not told they are
generous.
Social Theories

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KpaLchFpJZ8
(Khan Academy)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=paA61KfOcEc
Functionalism
Conflict Theory
Symbolic Interactionism
Examples:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lDZHlvP6Q6E
Study of the human mind, emotions, and behaviours
of individuals
Field of Psychology:
Developmental Psychology
Experimental Psychology
Personality Psychology
Clinical and Counseling Psychology
Social Psychology
Industrial and Organizational Psychology
PSYCHOLOGY
Key Theories
Key Theories in Phsychology

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Psychoanalytical Theory
Behaviouralism
Learning Theory
Psychoanalytic Theory
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The mind is divided into two parts: the
conscious(aware of ) and the unconscious (not aware
of).
According to psychologists, our unconscious mind has
more influence than our conscious mind on our
personalities and behaviour
Sigmund Freud
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_e
mbedded&v=Mkin1FhojCo
The Unconscious Mind
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The Unconscious mind is
divided into three parts:
Id–which encourages us to seek
physical satisfaction.
Superego–prompts us to do the
moral thing, not the one that
feels best.
Ego–the referee between the
two and deals with external
reality, this is our most conscious
self.
Sigmund Freud
1856-1939
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The founder of psychoanalytic theory.
He believed our early childhood experiences, usually
involving our relationships with parents and family, are
stored in our unconscious mind.
While we are normally unaware of these memories, they
can have a powerful influence on the way we function.
Those that live with a general sense of frustration, our
behaviour may become neurotic and connected with
anxiety or obsessiveness which can be treated using
dream analysis, hypnosis and individual counseling.
Alfred Adler
(1870-1937)

Adler believed that difficulties
people encounter in gaining selfesteem and recognition, if not
overcome by the normal means
lead to compensatory behaviour
and resultant personality disorders
which are now widely referred to
as an inferiority complex.
Carl Jung (1875-1961)
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Responsible for the identification of the
Extroverted(outward-looking;
outgoing; rely on others for sense of
well being) and Introverted(inwardlooking; emotionally self sufficient; well
being comes from within) personality
types.
Worked closely with Freud but split
later in their careers.
The other aspect of Jung's work which
has been very influential is his
approach to the analysis of dreams.
Behaviourism
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Behaviourists believe that
psychologists can predict and
modify human behaviour by
identifying the factors that motivate
it in the first place.
Behaviourists placed particular
stress on the early childhood years,
and the rules or practices parents
use to raise their children because
they believe these methods have a
huge influence on the character of
individuals even into adulthood.
Charles B. Watson
(1878-1958)
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The founder of behaviourism.
He used animal experiments
to determine whether strict or
flexible learning patterns are
more effective.
Wrote book “Psychological
Care of the Infant and Child”
concluded that children should
be brought up using a
‘scientific’, strictly scheduled,
rules-based model.
Benjamin Spock (1903-1998)
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He believed that a
permissive approach to
child rearing, rather than a
strict one, would result in
successful, well-adjusted
adults.
He encouraged parents to
be loving, flexible and
supportive.
Learning Theories
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Learning Theorists agree that humans are born with little
instinct but much learning potential.
They believe that most human behaviour is learned,
especially in child and youth.
By controlling the way in which humans learn behaviours,
society can have a great influence on their ultimate
personalities.
Believe that children who were brought up in loving
families would grow up to become secure and loving
adults, but only if parents provided clear and consistent
expectations for good behaviour, and swift but fair
consequences for bad behaviour.
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
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Skinner proved that pigeons could be trained to
peck at a particular coloured disk to get food
rewards.
Rats received food rewards for pressing specific
levers in a complicated sequence leading many
theorists to believe that learning was a
STIMULUS-RESPONSE effect.
He believed that if the subject is correctly
stimulated it will give the appropriate response.
Theory of OPERANT CONDITIONING: learning
can be programmed by whatever consequences
follows a particular behaviour.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/operantconditioning.html
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
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Analysis of human needs organized
into a hierarchy ranging from basic
survival through to the need for love,
security and esteem.
Highest level was “self actualization
(integration of the self > making the
personality whole)
Maslow’s theories had most profound
impact on industrial psychology
(making workplace a satisfying
experience by raising morale of
workers to improve performance)
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
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Classical Conditioning – pairing a
behaviour with a stimulus
Pavlov’s experiments with dogs
showed that it was possible to get
a dog to associate the sound of a
bell with the imminent arrival of
food
At the sound of a bell, the dog
would salivate in anticipation
Alfred Bandura 1925
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Observational Learning – Social Learning Theory
Bandura concluded that learning is largely a
modeling experience
When humans observe behaviour either acceptable
or unacceptable they are more likely to practice it
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8
Case study - Genie
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Read the case study:
 Which
theory would you apply to explain the case?
 Identify issues that would raise ethical concern in the
case management.
considers the scientific study of humans
throughout time (historical evolution) and
space (cultural), especially of their origin,
behaviour and physical, social, and cultural
development.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Key Theories
Key Theories
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Functionalism
Structuralism
Cultural Materialism
Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942)
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Founder of the “functional” school of
anthropology, which maintains that
human institutions should be examined in
the context of the culture as a whole
Believed that all components of society
interlock to form a well-balanced
system.
Emphasized characteristics of beliefs,
ceremonies, customs, institutions, religion,
ritual and sexual taboos.
Functionalism:
The Functionalists examined how a particular cultural
phase is interrelated with other aspects of the culture
and how it affects the whole system of the society.
The method of functionalism was based on fieldwork
and direct observations of societies.
Societies must have a set standard of laws and
practices to provide stability. These are referred to as
social institutions.
Functionalism
Society is based upon the basic needs (both physical
and psychological) that must function in the best interest
by the needs of the majority
 Examples include food for hunger, and a feeling of safety for society’s
members.
In order to understand a society, you must
understand/comprehend the culture and their actions
The role of anthropologists is to explain not judge
The belief is that all society’s actions make up their
culture and that they all serve a purpose.
 Think of an example where application of this theory
would be relevant and useful?
Structuralism
 Theory of binary opposites - everything in society is divided
between two ends of the spectrum: good vs. evil, male vs. female,
etc.
 Binary opposites differ from society to society and are defined in a
particular culture in a way that is logical to its members
 The divisions within society are not always considered just right or
wrong, it depends on the context in which they are used.
 i.e. shoes are “good” when you wear them outside but “bad” if you put
them on the table
 Question: How does this theory apply to alcohol use?
Structuralism

Cultural aspects:
 language
and communication,
 subsistence and other economic patterns,
 kinship (family), sex and marriage,
 socialization,
 social control,
 political organization,
 class, ethnicity, gender, religion,
Cultural Materialism:
The most important factors in molding a society are
technology and economics/$$$.
This is known as materialism
There are different structures to society:
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Infrastructure (material goods)
Structure (class system)
Superstructure (arts, sports, etc.)
 Question: How does this apply to our culture?
WHY
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http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/gunman-aaronalexis-entered-u-s-navy-yard-with-valid-pass1.1857163
Work in your groups
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Provide an explanation of possible reasons of this act
(keep in mind your perspectives: Psychology, Sociology,
Anthropology)
What additional information would you need to collect?
How would you go about collecting required
information?
What theory/theories is/are the most helpful in
explaining the event?
What changes would you suggest to decrease the
occurrence of similar events?
How would you suggest implementing such changes?
WHY?
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Psychologist:
 when
attempting to explain the reasons for behavior
would examine the life in detail in order to answer the
question “Why?” What factors in his/her personality led
to committing crime?
 Would answer the question based on the assumption
that an individual’s personality is molded by his/her
prior experiences
Why?
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Sociologist:
 When
attempting to explain the reasons for behavior
would look at common factors in the lives of others who
acted with extreme violence.
 Why do some people act violently? Sociologist would
answer the question based on the assumption that there
are factors in the nature of society itself that encourage
violence. One cannot explain violence without looking
at larger societal reasons.
WHY?
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Anthropologist:
 Anthropologist
would study this case based on the
assumption that the significance of someone’s acts can
only be understood when they are compared to those
of others like him/her in a particular culture
Current events - discussion
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Please share the current event that got your
attention. Provide brief outline and explain why this
event would be of interest to Social Science.
Which theory would apply to this event?