Work in the 21 st Century
Chapter 12
Leadership
1

Module 12.1: The Concept of
Leadership
•
Conceptual Distinctions
Leadership effectiveness
VS.
Leader emergence
•
Research indicates that emotional stability, extraversion, openness, & conscientiousness
“+” correlated with leader emergence
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Problem of Defining
Leadership Outcomes
•
Leadership has been variously credited with many different achievements
•
Problem in choosing which outcome to examine & which time frame to consider
•
There is typically lag time between actions by a leader & outcomes of those actions
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Figure 12.1: Toxic Triangle of
Destructive Leadership
SOURCE: Padilla et al. (2007)
4

Leader vs. Manager or Supervisor
•
Leader
–
Individual in group given task of directing task-relevant group activities or, in absence of designated leader, carries primary responsibility for performing these functions
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Leader vs. Manager or
Supervisor (cont’d)
•
Attempts at leadership
–
Attempted leadership
– Successful leadership
–
Effective leadership
•
Manager or supervisor deals with what is to be done
•
Leadership deals with how it is to be done
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Blending of Managerial &
Leadership Roles
• Leadership previously seen as “icing on the cake” in managers
•
Modern approaches blend many managerial duties with expectations of what represents effective leadership
• Borman & Brush’s taxonomy of managerial performance requirements
–
Connection b/w leadership & mgmt. very clear
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Table 12.1: Areas of
Managerial Responsibility
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KSAOs of Managerial Levels
Figure 12.2
SOURCE: Mumford et al. (2007)
9

Leader Development vs.
Leadership Development
•
Leader development
–
Develops, maintains, & enhances individual leader attributes
•
Leadership development
– Concentrates on leader-follower development
–
Leadership as social exchange
–
Interpersonal competence
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Motivation to Lead
•
Power motive
•
Exercise of control over others or environment is pleasing
•
Activity inhibition
• Describes person who is not impulsive
•
Affiliation need
•
Need for approval or connections with others
•
Those with leadership aspirations tend to have high power motive + high activity inhibition + low affiliation needs
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Motivation to Lead (cont’d)
•
Motives to lead
–
Affective-identity → Desire for control
–
Instrumental → Personal benefits
–
Social-normative → Duty to lead
•
Bottom line: There are multiple motivations to lead besides the need for power & control
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Table 12.2:
Motives to Lead
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Module 12.2: Traditional
Theories of Leadership
• “Great Man” theories
–
Life of respected leader examined for clues leading to his/her greatness
–
Often focused on a galvanizing experience or admirable trait
–
Tend to be of little value from the perspective of I-O psychology
14

Trait Approach
•
Prevalent in 1920s & 1930s
•
Attempted to show that leaders possess certain characteristics that non-leaders do not
•
No consistent relationships between traits & leader effectiveness were found
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Table 12.3: Some Characteristics of Leaders that Have Been Studied
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“Power” Approach
•
Examines types of power wielded by leaders
•
Reward power
• Coercive power
•
Legitimate power
• Referent power
•
Expert power
•
Very practical in orientation
Emma Lee/Life File/Getty Images
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Guidelines on Building and Using Power
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Behavioral Approach
Ohio State University studies
•
Behavioral approach
•
Focused on kinds of behavior engaged in by people in leadership roles
•
2 major types of behavior
• Consideration
•
Initiating structure
–
Represented a leap forward
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Behavioral Approach
University of Michigan studies
•
Focused more on dynamics of how leaders
& groups interacted
• Task-oriented behavior
– Similar to initiating structure
•
Relations-oriented behavior
– Similar to consideration
•
Participative behavior
•
Represented another step forward in leadership research
20

Contingency Approach
•
Proposed to take into account the role of the situation in the exercise of leadership
• Hersey & Blanchard’s situational theory
–
Proposed leadership depended in part on maturity of subordinate
•
Job maturity
• Psychological maturity
21

Consequences of Participation:
Vroom-Yetton Model
•
Decision rules regarding participation
–
Assumes that one of most important duties of leader is to make decisions
–
Suggests way to choose a decisionmaking strategy
–
Implication that group decision-making is not always appropriate
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Guidelines for
Participative Leadership
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Module 12.3:
New Approaches to Leadership
•
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory
–
Leaders adopt different behaviors with individual subordinates
–
In-group members vs. out-group members
– Recent revisions describe “life-cycle” of a leader-follower relationship
C Squared Studios/Getty Images
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Transformational Leadership (Burns)
•
Behavior of inspirational political leaders who transform followers by appealing to nobler motives (MLK Jr. & Gandhi)
•
4 general strategies
– Inspirational motivation
– Idealized influence
–
Intellectual stimulation
–
Individualized consideration
25

Transformational Leadership (Bass)
•
Bass perceived transformational leadership as building upon transactional leadership in a hierarchy reflecting effectiveness
– “Full-range” theory of leadership
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Hierarchy of Transformational
Leadership
Figure 12.3
Hierarchical Nature of
Transformational Leadership
Source: Based on Bass (1997).
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Transformational Leadership:
Guidelines
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The Charismatic Leader
•
Charisma
–
Personal attribute of a leader that hypnotizes followers and compels them to identify with and attempt to emulate the leader
29

Charismatic Leader
•
Followers are emotionally attached to leader, never question leader’s beliefs or actions, & see themselves as integral to accomplishment of leader’s goal
•
Acquire some power from situation
•
Charismatic style may work to keep followers weak
Morley/PhotoLink/Getty Images
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Charismatic Leadership Theory
• Approach with many different versions of the notion that charisma is related to leadership;
(1) in a crisis situation, followers perceive charismatic characteristics in an individual and accept that person as a leader;
(2) certain leader behaviors (use of innovative strategies) contribute to a charismatic aura
31

Module 12.4: Emerging Topics &
Challenges in Leadership Research
•
Leadership in a changing workplace
–
Teams/groups
–
Telecommuting
–
Temporary workers
–
Fuzzy boundaries of jobs
32

Male & Female Leaders:
Are They Different?
• Considerable disagreement among researchers
•
Women tend to prefer democratic & participative styles; men favor autocratic styles
•
Men tend to be more assertive; women more extraverted
• Women substantially more tender-minded
Ryan McVay/Getty Images
33

Male & Female Leaders (cont’d)
•
Effect of male- or female-dominated industries on leadership styles
–
Women in male-dominated industries
–
Men in female-dominated industries
•
More research is necessary on gender
& leadership
34

Personality & Leadership
•
1 or more Big Five factors appear directly or indirectly in all leadership theories
• Big 5 factors emphasize “bright side” of leadership: Effectiveness
•
Predictors for leader failure more likely to be found in measures of psychopathology
35

Personality & Leadership (cont’d)
• Meta-analysis on relationship between personality
& leader effectiveness in 3 settings
– Characteristics positively associated with leader effectiveness in 3 different environments:
Industry
Emotional stability
Government/Military
Emotional stability
Extraversion Extraversion
Openness to experience Conscientiousness
Student
Emotional stability
Extraversion
Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
36

Cross-Cultural Leadership Studies
•
Global leadership & organizational behavior effectiveness (GLOBE)
–
Large-scale cross-cultural study of leadership by 170 social scientists & management researchers in over 60 countries
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Table 12.7: Universal and Culture-
Specific Aspects of Leadership
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Table 12.8: Examples of Cultural
Dimensions Related to Leadership
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Leadership in a Diverse Environment
•
Workplace is becoming less white, less native born, less male, & less young
–
Implications for leader behavior
•
Appears that transformational & charismatic leadership are universally valued
–
Lead to positive performance results & positive attitude reactions
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